Performance of the Severe Acute Respiratory Illness Sentinel Surveillance System in Yemen: Mixed Methods Evaluation Study

BackgroundThe national severe acute respiratory illness (SARI) surveillance system in Yemen was established in 2010 to monitor SARI occurrence in humans and provide a foundation for detecting SARI outbreaks.ObjectiveTo ensure that the objectives of national surveillance are being met, this study aimed to examine the level of usefulness and the performance of the SARI surveillance system in Yemen.MethodsThe updated Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines were used for the purposes of our evaluation. Related documents and reports were reviewed. Data were collected from 4 central-level managers and stakeholders and from 10 focal points at 4 sentinel sites by using a semistructured questionnaire. For each attribute, percent scores were calculated and ranked as follows: very poor (≤20%), poor (20%-40%), average (40%-60%), good (60%-80%), and excellent (>80%).ResultsAs rated by the evaluators, the SARI surveillance system achieved its objectives. The system’s flexibility (percent score: 86%) and acceptability (percent score: 82%) were rated as “excellent,” and simplicity (percent score: 74%) and stability (percent score: 75%) were rated as “good.” The percent score for timeliness was 23% in 2018, which indicated poor timeliness. The overall data quality percent score of the SARI system was 98.5%. Despite its many strengths, the SARI system has some weaknesses. For example, it depends on irregular external financial support.ConclusionsThe SARI surveillance system was useful in estimating morbidity and mortality, monitoring the trends of the disease, and promoting research for informing prevention and control measures. The overall performance of the SARI surveillance system was good. We recommend expanding the system by promoting private health facilities’ (eg, private hospitals and private health centers) engagement in SARI surveillance, establishing an electronic database at central and peripheral sites, and providing the National Central Public Health Laboratory with the reagents needed for disease confirmation.     

The Rotavirus Surveillance System in Yemen: Evaluation Study

BackgroundRotavirus (RV) kills over 185,000 children <5 years every year and is responsible for over one-third of all child diarrheal deaths worldwide. The Rotavirus Surveillance System (RVSS) in Yemen was launched in 2007 at five sentinel sites to monitor the impact of the vaccine on RV morbidity and mortality.ObjectiveThis study aimed to determine the usefulness of the RVSS, assess its performance, and identify the strengths and weaknesses of its implementation.MethodsThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s updated guidelines on evaluating a public health surveillance system were used to evaluate the RVSS. In this assessment, qualitative indicators, such as usefulness, flexibility, stability, simplicity, and acceptability, were assessed through in-depth interviews with stakeholders at the central level and semistructured questionnaires with the sentinel site coordinators. The indicators for quantitative attributes—sensitivity, positive predictive value (PPV), completeness, and timeliness—were assessed by reviewing the results of laboratory samples and a random sample of case report forms. The scores for the indicators were expressed as poor (<60%), average (60% to <80%), and good (≥80%).ResultsThe overall usefulness score of the RVSS was 73%, indicating an average rank. The RVSS was rated as having good flexibility (91%) and stability (81%), and average simplicity (77%) and acceptability (76%). In terms of quantitative attributes, the system was poor for sensitivity (16%), average for PPV (73%), and good for completeness (100%) and timeliness (100%).ConclusionsAlthough the system attributes were flexible, stable, capable of providing quality data, and performing timely data reporting, some attributes still needed improvements (eg, usefulness, simplicity, acceptability, and PPV). There is a need for a gradual replacement of donor funds with government funds to ensure sustainability. The RVSS in Yemen strongly requires a progressive increase in the number of sites in governorates and sensitivity enhancement.     

Performance of the Neonatal Tetanus Surveillance System (NTSS) in Sana'a,Yemen: Evaluation Study

BackgroundThe Neonatal Tetanus Surveillance System (NTSS) in Yemen was established in 2009 to identify high-risk areas, determine trends, and evaluate elimination activities. Since its launch, the NTSS had never been evaluated.ObjectiveThis study aimed to assess the performance of NTSS and determine its strengths and weaknesses to recommend improvements.MethodsThe US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines were used for evaluating the NTSS. Stakeholders at the central, district, and facility levels were interviewed to rate the attributes of the NTSS. The percentage scores for attributes were ranked as poor (<60%), average (≥60% to <80%) and good (≥80%).ResultsThe overall usefulness score percentage was 38%, which indicates a poor performance. The performance of the NTSS was rated as average on flexibility (score percent: 68%) and acceptability (score percent: 64%) attributes and poor on stability (score percentage: 33%), simplicity (score percentage: 57%), and representativeness (score percentage: 39%) attributes. About 65% of investigation forms were completed within 48 hours of notification date. Data quality was poor, as 41% of the core variables were missing.ConclusionsThe overall performance of the NTSS was poor. Most of the system attributes require improvement, including stability, simplicity, quality of data, and completeness of investigation. To improve the performance of NTSS, the following are recommended: capacity building of staff (focal points), strengthening NTSS through technical support and government funding to ensure its sustainability, establishing electronic investigation forms for improving the system data quality, and expansion of NTSS coverage to include all private health care facilities.     

Evaluation and comparison of the National Tuberculosis (TB) Surveillance System in Ireland before and after the introduction of the Computerised Electronic Reporting System (CIDR)

We evaluated and compared the completeness, timeliness, simplicity, usefulness and flexibility between the former National Tuberculosis (TB) Surveillance System (NTBSS) and the newer Computerised Infectious Disease Reporting System (CIDR). Completeness was assessed by examining the field completion of key variables and median time from diagnosis to notification was calculated to evaluate timeliness. Differences between the two systems on completeness and timeliness were statistically assessed using χ² and Wilcoxon rank-sum test, respectively. An online questionnaire on simplicity, flexibility and usefulness was sent to key stakeholders. Time and diagnosis-related variables were more complete in NTBSS, while variables on drug susceptibility, HIV and laboratory tests were more complete in CIDR (P < 0.05). The median time notification interval increased significantly in CIDR (P < 0.05). Stakeholders thought that CIDR is simpler (37.5%), more useful (41.7%) and more flexible (29.2%) than NTBSS. This study demonstrated that CIDR did not improve data completeness and decreased timeliness of notification. Simplicity, usefulness and flexibility were improved but qualitative methods should be applied to further explore these results.Key words: Surveillance system, evaluation, tuberculosis (TB)     

Feasibility of using teleradiology to improve tuberculosis screening and case management in a district hospital in Malawi

ProblemMalawi has one of the world’s highest rates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (10.6%), and southern Malawi, where Thyolo district is located, bears the highest burden in the country (14.5%). Tuberculosis, common among HIV-infected people, requires radiologic diagnosis, yet Malawi has no radiologists in public service. This hinders rapid and accurate diagnosis and increases morbidity and mortality. ApproachMédecins Sans Frontières, in collaboration with Malawi’s Ministry of Health, implemented teleradiology in Thyolo district to assist clinical staff in radiologic image interpretation and diagnosis.

Local setting

Thyolo district’s 600 000 inhabitants are mostly subsistence-level or migrant farmers living in extreme poverty. Health facilities include one public hospital and 38 primary health centres. Understaffing and the absence of a radiologist make the diagnosis of tuberculosis difficult in a population where this disease affects 66% of patients with HIV infection.

Relevant changes

From September 2010–2011, 159 images (from 158 patients) were reviewed by teleradiology. Teleradiology changed patient management in 36 cases (23.5%). Two (1.3%) of them were cases of pulmonary tuberculosis not previously suspected by clinical staff. In addition, the radiologist’s review corrected the misdiagnosis of tuberculosis and averted inappropriate treatment in 16 patients (10.5%).

Lessons learnt

Teleradiology can improve tuberculosis diagnosis and case management, especially if criteria to identify the patients most suitable for referral are developed and the radiologist is conversant with local resources and health problems. Designating a clinical focal point for teleradiology ensures sustainability. Staff need time to adapt to a new teleradiology programme.     

2006－2012年全国伤害监测工作状况评估

目的 描述2006－2012年全国伤害监测工作现状,为监测数据的利用和解释及监测工作的发展和完善提供依据。方法 根据中国疾病预防控制中心慢性非传染性疾病预防控制中心(慢病中心)制定的全国伤害监测统一方案,通过回顾性自查收集2006－2012年全国各省级疾病预防控制中心和监测点伤害监测漏报率、错填率、漏录率、错录率、伤害监测产出数量以及2012年伤害监测专职工作人员数、伤害监测配套工作经费数及伤害监测数据共享情况指标,由慢病中心复核、录入及分析数据。结果 2006－2012年全国伤害监测病例增长1倍。各监测点漏报率和错填率持续降低:72.1%(31个)的监测点漏报率降低、53.5%(23个)的监测点错填率降低;2012年≤10%漏报率和错填率的监测点分别占76.7%(33个)和90.7%(39个)。全国伤害监测系统中省级和县(区)级疾病预防控制中心设置伤害监测专职人员分别占44.2%(19个)和76.2%(32个)。有27.9%的监测点(12个)未利用伤害监测数据发布过报告,有7.0%的监测点(3个)从未利用伤害监测数据;与其他部门实现数据共享的监测点仅占30.2%(13个)。结论 2006－2012年全国伤害监测工作质量显著提高且影响日益增加。     

Mortality, TB/HIV co-infection, and treatment dropout: predictors of tuberculosis prognosis in Recife, Pernambuco State, Brazil

This non-concurrent cohort study aims to identify predictors of tuberculosis mortality in a large population database in Brazil. Tuberculosis, death, and TB/HIV cases were validated respectively from the tuberculosis surveillance (SINAN/TB), mortality (SIM), and SINAN/AIDS databases for a five-year period. Analysis included proportional hazard models with relative risk estimates. Out of 5,451 individuals reported with tuberculosis, 320 (5.9%) died (incidence and mortality rates of 98.6 and 12.2/100 thousand inhabitants, respectively). After adjustment, relative risk of dying from tuberculosis was 9.8 for individuals>50 years of age; 9.0 for TB/HIV co-infection; 3.0 for mixed TB clinical presentation; and 2.0 for treatment dropout. In the multivariate model, using cases with HIV/AIDS, all adjusted predictors lost significance except mixed clinical presentation (RR 1.9; 1.1-3.1). TB/HIV co-infection is an important predictor of TB mortality. However, among individuals without HIV/AIDS, mortality is still highly associated with older age, mixed clinical forms, and treatment dropout.     

河南省第二轮结核病耐药监测药敏试验质量控制分析

目的评价河南省第二轮结核病耐药监测药敏试验工作质量。方法西太区跨国参比室（SRL）——韩国国家结核病研究所参比室对河南省结核防治研究所参比室(PRL）进行了4次药敏试验质量控制。其中3次同时对其他国家参比室(NRL）进行了同步质量控制。试验菌株为含耐药和敏感的结核分支杆菌临床分离菌株、试验的4种药物为链霉素、异烟肼、利福平和乙胺丁醇，采用L—J培养基和比例法。结果4种药一致性均达到95．0％或以上；异烟肼平均敏感性明显高于其平均特异性(100．0％比88．0％，P=0．0298)；3次同步质量控制中，河南省PRL利福平平均特异性、一致性明显低于同步质量控制NRL相应平均值(分别为91．0％比98．0％，P=0．0154和93．0％比98．0％．P=0．02981。结论河南省第二轮结核病耐药监测药敏试验工作质量符合《世界卫生组织(WHO)／国际肺部疾病联合会(IUATLD)结核病耐药监测指南》(1997)及WHO专家要求：以该质量控制结果评价该次耐药监测结果．在某种程度上可能会过高估计异烟肼的耐药率和多耐药率．     

Evaluating Usefulness of Maine’s Syndromic Surveillance System for Hospitals, 2012

Objective

To assess the usefulness and acceptability of Maine’s syndromic surveillance system among hospitals who currently participate.

Introduction

Maine has been conducting syndromic surveillance since 2007 using the Early Aberration Reporting System (EARS). An evaluation of the syndromic surveillance system was conducted to determine if system objectives are being met, assess the system’s usefulness, and identify areas for improvement. According to CDC’s Guidelines for Evaluating Public Health Surveillance Systems, a surveillance system is useful if it contributes to the timely prevention and control of adverse health events. Acceptability includes the willingness of participants to report surveillance data; participation or reporting rate; and completeness of data.

Methods

A survey was created in 2012 to measure usefulness and acceptability among hospital partners who submit emergency department data to Maine CDC for syndromic surveillance. Currently, 24 of Maine’s 37 emergency departments collect syndromic surveillance data and 20 of those receive a weekly syndromic surveillance report from Maine CDC. The survey was included with the report on August 14, 2012, and hospitals were given two weeks for completion. The survey included questions about how useful hospitals find syndromic surveillance and how data is shared back with the hospitals; which syndromes are most and least useful; and chief complaint data collection at individual hospitals.

Results

The survey was completed by 13 out of 22 emergency departments (59% participation rate), and six out of 13 respondents (46%) completed the entire survey. The factors reported as having an influence on a hospital’s decision to submit data for syndromic surveillance were: public health importance of events (6 respondents) and assurance of privacy/confidentiality (5 respondents). The majority of respondents (5 respondents) reported that there are no factors that limit their ability to send emergency department data. Among hospitals that did report factors that limit their ability to send data, lack of information technology support in the hospital (2 respondents) and manually entering data/lack of electronic health records (1 respondent) were the most frequently reported. Six out of seven hospitals who answered (86°%) reported the current method of sharing syndromic surveillance data on a weekly basis, including a statewide data summary, as useful. Respondents also recommended that data be shared back with participants using 30-day line graphs for each syndrome (4 respondents). The three syndromes respondents found most useful were influenzalike illness (7 respondents), gastrointestinal (5 respondents), and respiratory (5 respondents). The three syndromes respondents found least useful were the broad heat syndrome (4 respondents), the narrow heat syndrome (4 respondents), and the other syndrome that captures all visits not classified into any syndrome (4 respondents). Chief complaint data, which is used to classify emergency department visits into syndromes, is most often recorded by a drop-menu (4 respondents).

Conclusions

With a low survey completion rate, it is difficult to generalize responses to all hospitals who participate in syndromic surveillance. Hospitals that did not respond to or complete the survey will be followed up with to determine their reasons for not doing so, as this may be useful information. In general, those who responded have more factors that influence them to contribute to syndromic surveillance than factors that hinder them. Most hospitals find the current method of sharing data back with the hospitals useful. Also, it is advantageous to know which syndromes the hospitals find most useful, as they are the entities that collect and report the data. Opinions differ among system users, which is why it is important to evaluate a system throughout all points of interaction.     

Receiving healthcare for drug-resistant TB: a cross-sectional survey from Pakistan

OBJECTIVE:To describe and quantify patients’ self-reported experiences of receiving healthcare from Pakistan’s Programmatic Management of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (PMDT) model of care, and to understand these experiences within the broader context of Pakistan’s health system.METHOD:This was a cross-sectional survey of patients attending three PMDT clinics in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province in Pakistan.RESULTS:The median consultation time at the PMDT clinics was 10 minutes. In their most recent visit to the PMDT clinic, 34.9% of patients spent >40% of their monthly income to access treatment. To specify, 71% of patients reported spending out-of-pocket for ancillary medicines and 44.7% for laboratory tests. In 10.5% of cases, medicines for drug-resistant TB (DR-TB) were dispensed without the patient attending the clinic. Only 43.7% of treatment supporters regularly accompanied patients to the clinic, and 6% supervised the patient’s intake of medicines. Disbursement of financial support was irregular in 98.6% of cases. Only 6.2% of patients received their daily injections from a public facility, the rest went elsewhere.CONCLUSION:Several shortcomings in PMDT services, including hurried consultations, irregularities in financial support, and gaps in Pakistan’s broader health system undermined healthcare experience of patients with DR-TB. To improve health outcomes and patients’ care experience these service gaps need to be addressed.     

Exploring the effects of BCG vaccination in patients diagnosed with tuberculosis: Observational study using the Enhanced Tuberculosis Surveillance system

BackgroundBacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) is one of the most widely-used vaccines worldwide. BCG primarily reduces the progression from infection to disease, however there is evidence that BCG may provide additional benefits. We aimed to investigate whether there is evidence in routinely-collected surveillance data that BCG vaccination impacts outcomes for tuberculosis (TB) cases in England.MethodsWe obtained all TB notifications for 2009–2015 in England from the Enhanced Tuberculosis surveillance system. We considered five outcomes: All-cause mortality, death due to TB (in those who died), recurrent TB, pulmonary disease, and sputum smear status. We used logistic regression, with complete case analysis, to investigate each outcome with BCG vaccination, years since vaccination and age at vaccination, adjusting for potential confounders. All analyses were repeated using multiply imputed data.ResultsWe found evidence of an association between BCG vaccination and reduced all-cause mortality (aOR:0.76 (95%CI 0.64–0.89), P:0.001) and weak evidence of an association with reduced recurrent TB (aOR:0.90 (95%CI 0.81–1.00), P:0.056). Analyses using multiple imputation suggested that the benefits of vaccination for all-cause mortality were reduced after 10 years.ConclusionsWe found that BCG vaccination was associated with reduced all-cause mortality in people with TB although this benefit was less pronounced more than 10 years after vaccination. There was weak evidence of an association with reduced recurrent TB.     

武汉市2011—2020年学生肺结核流行病学特征

  目的  分析2011—2020年武汉市学生肺结核流行特征,为科学制定干预策略和措施提供依据。  方法  对国家结核病管理信息系统登记的2011—2020年武汉市学生结核病病案信息数据进行分布特征、发病就诊时间、治疗转归情况的统计分析。  结果  2011—2020年武汉市登记学生肺结核患者4 337例,年均登记发病率为22.44/10万,年均递降率为7.86%;男女发病数比为1.76∶1,男生发病率高于女生(χ2=184.18,P < 0.01);发病年龄以19~22岁组最高,占47.89%;每年报告发病高峰是3—5月和9—11月,发病低谷是每年1—2月和7—8月;学生患者主要集中在学校分布较多的洪山区、江夏区和武昌区,学校聚集性疫情频发于洪山区、东西湖区、武昌区和新洲区;学生患者发病至就诊求医时间M(P₂₅,P₇₅)为9(3,21)d,按地区、年龄、民族和患者来源分组组间差异均有统计学意义(Z值分别为-9.25,47.14,9.88,43.96,P值均 < 0.01);学生患者治疗与转归按年份、民族分组组间差异均有统计学意义(P值均 < 0.05)。  结论  武汉市学生肺结核疫情呈缓慢波动下降趋势,年龄段以大学生和高中生为主,集中发现时间和地点相对固定,病例就诊时间和治疗转归各有区别。应根据各区县学生分布特点因时因地分类地制定防控策略,加强疫情监测、健康促进、主动发现和督导管理。     

Applying a new conceptual framework to evaluate tuberculosis surveillance and action performance and measure the costs, Hillsborough County, Florida, 2002

PURPOSE: Tuberculosis (TB) elimination is an important US public health goal and improving the performance of TB surveillance and action and reducing the costs will help achieve it. But, there exists the need to better evaluate the performance and measure the costs. METHODS: We pilot tested an evaluation strategy in Hillsborough County, Florida using a conceptual framework of TB surveillance and action with eight core and four support activities. To evaluate performance, we developed indicators and validated their accuracy, usefulness, and measurability. To measure the costs, we obtained financial information. RESULTS: In 2001, Hillsborough County reported 78 (7%) of the 1145 Florida TB cases. Nineteen (24%) were previously arrested. While 13 (68%) of the 19 were incarcerated during the 2 years prior to being reported, only 1 (5%) of 19 was reported from the jail. From 111 TB suspects, 219 (25%) of 894 sputum specimens were inadequately collected. Of the $1.08 million annual budget, 22% went for surveillance, 29% for support, and 49% for action. CONCLUSIONS: This conceptual framework allowed measurement of TB surveillance and action performance and cost. The evaluation performed using it revealed missed opportunities for detection of TB cases and wasted resources. This conceptual framework could serve as a model for evaluation of TB surveillance and action.     

Factores asociados a la adherencia en el tratamiento de la infección tuberculosa

ObjectiveTo analyze adherence to treatment of tuberculosis infection and to identify risk factors for its compliance.DesignAn observational historical cohort study.SettingHospital Universitari Sant Joan d’Alacant (Alicante).ParticipantsAll patients with a tuberculin skin test (TST) done during tuberculosis contact tracing during 6 years.ResultsWe included 764 tuberculosis contacts in the analysis. 59.7% of the 566 patients who completed the contact tracing, had tuberculosis infection (TI). Of the patients with TI, 45.6% had not started treatment for tuberculosis infection (TTBI). Factors associated with not starting TTBI were: age (36-65 years, RR: 5.8; 95% CI: 1.2-27.5, and > 65 years, RR: 11.3; 95% CI: 2.0-64.0), the social relationship with TB case (RR: 2.2; 95% CI 1.2-3.8), and the TST reaction (≥ 15 mm; RR: 0.5; 95% CI: 0.3-0.9). The completion rate for TTBI was 80.4% among people who started therapy. The treatment regimen was associated with greater compliance to TTBT (7-9H, RR: 12.7; 95% CI: 1.5-107.3).ConclusionsThe treatment compliance rate of Tuberculosis infection was high among people who started therapy. Almost a half of the contacts with TI did not start treatment, and associated factors were: age, social relationship, and the TST reaction. The treatment regimen was associated with greater compliance. It is important to know the factors associated with adherence to treatment of TI in each health area, and focus efforts on risk groups; thereby approaching the global control of tuberculosis.     

A tuberculosis nationwide prevalence survey in Gambia, 2012

ObjectiveTo estimate the population prevalence of active pulmonary tuberculosis in Gambia.MethodsBetween December 2011 and January 2013, people aged ≥ 15 years participating in a nationwide, multistage cluster survey were screened for active pulmonary tuberculosis with chest radiography and for tuberculosis symptoms. For diagnostic confirmation, sputum samples were collected from those whose screening were positive and subjected to fluorescence microscopy and liquid tuberculosis cultures. Multiple imputation and inverse probability weighting were used to estimate tuberculosis prevalence.FindingsOf 100 678 people enumerated, 55 832 were eligible to participate and 43 100 (77.2%) of those participated. A majority of participants (42 942; 99.6%) were successfully screened for symptoms and by chest X-ray. Only 5948 (13.8%) were eligible for sputum examination, yielding 43 bacteriologically confirmed, 28 definite smear-positive and six probable smear-positive tuberculosis cases. Chest X-ray identified more tuberculosis cases (58/69) than did symptoms alone (43/71). The estimated prevalence of smear-positive and bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis were 90 (95% confidence interval, CI: 53–127) and 212 (95% CI: 152–272) per 100 000 population, respectively. Tuberculosis prevalence was higher in males (333; 95% CI: 233–433) and in the 35–54 year age group (355; 95% CI: 219–490).ConclusionThe burden of tuberculosis remains high in Gambia but lower than earlier estimates of 490 per 100 000 population in 2010. Less than half of all cases would have been identified based on smear microscopy results alone. Successful control efforts will require interventions targeting men, increased access to radiography and more accurate, rapid diagnostic tests.     

Tuberculosis in Havana City, 1995-1999

OBJECTIVE: Tuberculosis is a worldwide health problem getting a prioritized attention by the Cuban National Health System. To describe the main indicators of the Cuban Tuberculosis Control Program. METHODS: Based on surveillance data from the Provincial Center of Hygiene and Epidemiology, the health care network and strategies of the tuberculosis control program were reviewed; incidence rates, case finding indicators, diagnosis and case management were described. RESULTS: Eight subjects with respiratory symptoms were found per 1,000 attending general medical care services. The incidence rates of all tuberculosis types declined from 16.4 in 1995 to 12.0 x 10(5) people in 1999. Pulmonary tuberculosis incidence rate was reduced from 15.1 in1995 to 10.4 x 10(5) in 1999, whereas extrapulmonary tuberculosis had an increment from 1.3 to 1.6 x 10(5) in the same period. Of all new cases, 40-50 % were diagnosed at multispecialty clinics, 67.6% were diagnosed by positive smears, 15.2 % by positive cultures, 13.8 % by clinical and X-rays evidences only; and 0.9 % and 1.5 % were respectively diagnosed by biopsy and necropsy. There was an increase in the incidence rate in the age group 15-64 years in 1996 and 1997 but it declined again in 1998 and 1999. The age group 64 years and over showed a rate reduction from 1995 to 1999. In general, incidence rates diminished in the overall period. The average delay between onset of symptoms and diagnosis improved from 42 days in 1995 to 28.6 days in 1999. CONCLUSIONS: There seems to be a halt in reporting trends of new cases in 1996. Tuberculosis indicators reveal satisfactory changes in the study period.     

TB training in Kenya: building capacity for care and prevention

BACKGROUND:Devolution of healthcare services in Kenya resulted in a large number of newly recruited tuberculosis (TB) coordinators. We describe a unique collaboration between a national tuberculosis program (NTP), a local, and an international non-governmental organization to build human resource capacity in TB care and prevention.METHODS:From 2016 to 2021, the Kenya Division of National Tuberculosis, Leprosy and Lung Disease Program, Centre for Health Solutions-Kenya, and the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease developed and conducted a series of 7-day training courses. A key focus of training was the introduction of TBData4Action, an approach involving the local use of routinely available data to strengthen decision-making and support supervision.RESULTS:Implementation outcomes included training 331 (96%) coordinators out of 344, representing all 47 counties, 37 national officers and 21 other stakeholders using the country-tailored curriculum, including hands-on group work by county teams and field practicals. Thirty-five national facilitators were identified and mentored as local faculty. Training costs were reduced by 75% compared with international alternatives.CONCLUSION:The collaboration resulted in the training of the majority of the coordinators in a standardized approach to TB care. A sustainable approach to capacity building in local data use was found feasible; the model could be adapted by other NTPs.     

Routine immunization services costs and financing in China, 2015

ObjectiveTo estimate the costs of routine immunization (RI) services in China in 2015, to provide objective data relevant to investment in the Expanded Program on Immunization, and to contribute to global data on costing and financing of RI.MethodsThe study was conducted between January and March 2016. We selected 276 villages, 138 townships, 46 counties, and 40 prefectures from 15 provinces as investigation sites at random, stratified by eastern, middle, and western regions. Direct cost items included vaccines, personnel, cold chain, surveillance, communication, training, and supervision at the national, provincial, prefecture, county, township, and village levels. We obtained financial data from governmental and external sources. Indirect costs of RI included parents’ transportation costs and productivity lost due to taking their children for vaccination.ResultsTotal direct costs were $92.42 for each child fully immunized ($4.20/dose), which equates to $1529.55 million per birth cohort. RI costs were higher in the eastern region than in the western region, and higher than that of the central region. Vaccination coverage was positively associated with direct routine immunization costs. The cost of the recommended vaccines was $19.08/child and vaccine only accounted for 20.64% of total costs. Operational cost, including surveillance, communication, training and supervision, was $217.31/child, accounting for 14.21% of total cost. The indirect cost per child was $72.86; the total indirect cost was $1205.83 million for the birth cohort. Government investment in RI accounted for about 70% of total costs. Revenue from sales of private-sector vaccine supported the remaining 30% of RI costs.ConclusionsWhile government financing has increased, some operating costs continue to be provided from revenue generated by sales of Category 2 (private-sector) vaccines to families. China could benefit from bringing new and underutilized vaccines into the EPI system based on evidence that includes routine immunization vaccine and operations costs.     

Completeness of tuberculosis case reporting,San Juan and Caguas Regions,Puerto Rico, 1992.

Completeness of tuberculosis case reporting in Puerto Rico was assessed. Cases diagnosed among hospitalized, tuberculosis, and human immunodeficiency virus clinic patients during 1992 were retrospectively reviewed. Hospital discharge diagnoses, pharmacy listings of patients receiving anti-tuberculous medications, laboratory and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome registry data were used for case finding in selected hospitals and clinics. Identified cases were matched to the health department TB case registry to determine previous reporting through routine surveillance. Records of unreported cases were reviewed to verify tuberculosis diagnoses. Of 159 patients with tuberculosis, 31 (19.5%) were unreported. A case was defined according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention definition. Unreported cases were less likely than previously reported cases to have specimens that were culture positive for M. tuberculosis, 14 of 31 (45.2%) compared with 111 of 128 (86.7%). Excluding the laboratory, tuberculosis diagnoses in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome registry patients had the highest predictive value of finding tuberculosis (94.1%), followed by tuberculosis clinic records (71.7%), and pharmacy listings (45.6%). Tuberculosis discharge diagnoses, however, yielded the largest number of unreported cases (14). Health care providers should be educated regarding the importance of promptly reporting all suspected TB cases regardless of results of laboratory testing.