Couples' adjustment to retirement: a multi-actor panel study

OBJECTIVE: This study examines adjustment to retirement by couples. For both older workers and their partners, we investigate the extent to which adjustment is influenced by the context in which the transition is made and psychological factors shaped by individual expectations and evaluations prior to retirement. Moreover, we examine the extent to which partners influence each other in the process of adjusting to retirement. METHODS: With use of multi-actor panel data from 559 older Dutch couples who experienced the transition into retirement of one of the partners, ordinary least squares, and three-stage least squares regression models are used to explain adjustment to retirement by both partners. RESULT: Adjustment to retirement is influenced by the context in which the transition is made as well as individual psychological factors. A strong "quantitative" attachment to work (full-time jobs, long work histories), a lack of control over the transition, retirement anxiety (negative preretirement expectations), and low scores on self-efficacy are predictors of difficult adjustment. The extent to which partners influence each other in the process of adjusting to retirement appears to be limited. DISCUSSION: Retirement affects both partners, albeit in a different way. Retirement preparation programs should pay attention to the fact that adjustment is an individualized process experienced differently by each partner.     

The persistence of depressive symptoms in older workers who experience involuntary job loss: results from the health and retirement survey

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between involuntary job loss among workers nearing retirement and long-term changes in depressive symptoms. METHODS: Analyzing data from the first four waves (1992-1998) of the Health and Retirement Survey, we used longitudinal multiple regression in order to assess whether involuntary job loss between Wave 1 and Wave 2 was associated with depressive symptoms at Wave 3 and Wave 4. The study sample included 231 workers who had experienced job loss in the Wave 1-Wave 2 interval and a comparison group of 3,324 nondisplaced individuals. We analyzed the effect of job loss on depressive symptoms both in the full study sample and in subsamples determined by wealth. RESULTS: Among individuals with below median net worth, Wave 1-Wave 2 involuntary job loss was associated with increased depressive symptoms at Wave 3 and Wave 4. We found no effect of involuntary job loss for high net worth individuals at the later survey waves. DISCUSSION: Our findings identify older workers with limited wealth as an important group for which the potential effect of involuntary job separation in the years preceding retirement is ongoing (enduring) adverse mental health.     

Race, gender, and the retirement decisions of people ages 60 to 80: prospects for age integration in employment

Demographic projections have prompted concerns about the potential economic burden of an aging population. This article, drawing on the 1998 Health and Retirement Study, explores ways in which race, gender, and age moderate the effects of various factors on labor force participation among people ages 60 to 80. Key findings center on health, education, and non-wage income. First, the effect of low non-wage income is weaker at older ages due to higher levels of functional disability. Second, the effect of low education is stronger for women, who perceive their chances of finding employment as low. Third, the effect of health is weaker for blacks, as they are less likely to find steady employment regardless of health. Policy implications: Employer flexibility in number of hours worked might make sense for workers close to retirement age, while job search and training programs might be preferable for workers past the typical retirement age.     

Eddies in the stream: the prevalence of uncertain plans for retirement

OBJECTIVE: This study examined an assumption of retirement theory that typifies older workers as preretirees who are planfully engaged in paths toward retirement. METHODS: Using survey responses among workers in the 1992 and 1994 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, we described the prevalence of nonsubstantive answers to questions about the expected form and timing of retirement (e.g., "don't know," "haven't thought about it"). We tested explanations for this uncertainty as an artifact of the survey process, but also as an outcome of the opportunity structure for retirement planning. RESULTS: Survey procedure did generate some of these noncommittal responses. Depending on question type, approximately 10% to 40% of workers did not state when or how they would retire, and such responses were less prevalent across age and time. In addition, categorical uncertainty about form and timing was theoretically predictable in a framework that supposed that workers less subject to a socially attended life--at work or away--would be more undecided about the future. DISCUSSION: Uncertainty is an authentic, meaningful stance toward retirement that theory and research design should not ignore. Just as actual transitions to retirement can be ambiguous or blurred, the expectation of retirement, as well, can be untidy.     

Changing work: Mid-to-late life transitions in employment

Job transition is an important, though largely unexplored aspect of work. The Centre for Research into the Older Workforce (CROW) conducted a survey of 5,200 people asking about their recent job transition. The experience of job transition in mid-to-late working life is discussed as a precursor to retirement and working beyond normal retirement ages. Three types of older worker were identified in this survey and dubbed: ‘choosers’, ‘survivors’ and ‘jugglers’. Each of these has different reason for making a job change and consequently different reasons for considering working after retirement. Flexible working is an attractive and popular option for ‘bridge’ jobs and for phasing into retirement but current British government policy is focused on equality and diversity and anti-age discrimination in employment practices. Little is being done to encourage more diverse forms of employment opportunities for older workers who either need or want to downshift before leaving work completely. Her research interests are older workers, gender and age discrimination, labor market policy and work organization. His research interests are older workers, job design, Human Resources practices, age discrimination, labor market trends, industrial relations and public policy.     

Working conditions as predictors of retirement intentions and exit from paid employment: a 10-year follow-up of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing

Population ageing in Western countries has made delayed retirement and extended working life a policy priority in recent years. Retirement timing has been linked to individual factors such as health and wealth, but less is known about the role of the psychosocial work environment. This paper drew upon longitudinal data on 3462 workers aged 50–69 from five waves of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA). Regression models were used to assess the association of working conditions with preferred timing of retirement and actual work exit. Adjusting for a range of covariates, job demands (aspects of the job requiring sustained physical or psychological effort) were associated with preferences for earlier retirement (by 0.18 years; 95 % C.I. 0.06, 0.31). Decision authority was associated with preferences for later retirement (by 0.38 years; 95 % C.I. 0.23, 0.53) and reduced odds of work exit (OR = 0.93; 95 % C.I. 0.88, 0.97). Low recognition at work was associated with increased odds of work exit (OR = 1.23; 95 % C.I. 1.10, 1.43). There was little evidence of any interactive relationship between demands and resources. Efforts to extend working life should address issues relating to the immediate psychosocial work environment. Providing older workers with increased sense of control, and ensuring contributions are adequately recognised, may delay retirement intentions and the timing of labour market exit.     

Aging in one's occupation: occupational and life's perspectives of elderly male and female employees

The consequences of social change for the workforce are discussed. In our society of the future we will have to deal with an aging industry as a result of the increasing number of older employees. Furthermore, we expect changes in relation to mandatory retirement in establishing the "Rentenreform 1992" (Retirement age policy). The necessity of intergenerational exchange to avoid "ageism" is explained. The impact of technology on life-long learning and qualifications of older workers is pointed out. Finally, we describe the pluralism of life courses as a characteristic of social change in relation to gender-effects.     

Self-employment and job satisfaction: evidence for older people with disabilities in Europe

The aim of this study is to analyse and compare the levels of job satisfaction reported by self-employed and salaried workers (aged 50–64) by disability status across Europe. Particular attention is paid to testing whether the effect of self-employment on job satisfaction is greater for disabled workers as compared to non-disabled ones. Using the first two waves (2004 and 2007) of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) for eleven countries, we estimate job satisfaction equations for older workers with and without disabilities. The results show that self-employed persons are more satisfied with their jobs. However, there is no evidence that the association between self-employment and job satisfaction is different for disabled and non-disabled older persons. Policy makers can promote self-employment among older workers with disabilities to increase their employment and income rates and levels of job satisfaction.     

Who opts for self-employment after retirement? A longitudinal study in the Netherlands

Self-employment among older age groups is rising. A better understanding of the role of self-employment in extending the working lives of individuals is, therefore, relevant from a policy perspective. By bridging the gap in the literature on work/retirement decision-making and entrepreneurship, the present study examines the factors associated with entry into self-employment post-retirement, after a worker has left a regular salaried position. This decision is modelled as a choice between full retirement and prolonged labour force participation, in the form of either a typical wage-providing job or self-employment. Data were derived from the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute Work and Retirement Panel, an ongoing longitudinal survey of older workers (50 years and over) employed by three private sector organisations and employed as civil servants in the Netherlands. These data were then analysed using multinomial logistic regression analysis. The results of this study show that the decision to pursue self-employment is primarily taken by retirees with relatively high levels of financial and human capital (wealth and educational attainment), those possessing entrepreneurial attitudes (high self-efficacy scores) and those who perceive their retirements to be completely involuntary. The results lend support to self-employment being selected as a postretirement path through opportunity rather than out of necessity. The fact that the retirements of the studied population were generally quite early, while not considered involuntary also suggests that the timing of the decision to retire may be driven by the emergence of new (business) opportunities.     

Health effects of involuntary job loss among older workers: findings from the health and retirement survey

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the health consequences of involuntary job loss among older workers in the United States. METHODS: Using longitudinal data from the 1992 and 1994 waves of the Health and Retirement Survey, multivariate regression models were estimated to assess the impact of involuntary job loss on both physical functioning and mental health. Our analysis sample included 209 workers who experienced involuntary job loss between survey dates and a comparison group of 2,907 continuously employed workers. RESULTS: The effects of late-life involuntary job loss on both follow-up physical functioning and mental health were negative and statistically significant (p < .05), even after baseline health status and sociodemographic factors were controlled for. Among displaced workers, reemployment was positively associated with both follow-up physical functioning and mental health, whereas the duration of joblessness was not significantly associated with either outcome. DISCUSSION: The findings provide evidence of a causal relationship between job loss and morbidity among older workers. This relationship is reflected in both poorer physical functioning and mental health for workers who experience involuntary job loss. In addition to the economic consequences of worker displacement, there may be important health consequences of job loss, especially among older workers.     

A case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers

A case-control study of deaths among U.S. railroad workers was conducted to test the hypothesis that lung cancer is associated with exposure to diesel exhaust. Employed and retired male workers with greater than or equal to 10 yr of service who were born on or after January 1, 1900 and who died between March 1, 1981 and February 28, 1982 were eligible. We collected 87% of the death certificates from 15,059 deaths reported to the U.S. Railroad Retirement Board (RRB). Cases of lung cancer (1,256) were matched to controls by age (+/- 2.5 yr) and date of death (+/- 31 days). Potential exposure to diesel exhaust was assigned based on an industrial hygiene evaluation of jobs and work areas. Each subject's work history was determined from a yearly job report filed by his employer with the RRB from 1959 until death or retirement. Asbestos exposure prior to 1959 was categorized by the job held in 1959, the end of the steam locomotive era, or by the last job held if retirement occurred before 1959. Smoking histories were obtained by questionnaire from next of kin. Using multiple conditional logistic regression analysis to adjust for smoking and asbestos exposure, workers 64 yr of age or younger at the time of death with work in a diesel exhaust exposed job for 20 yr had a significantly increased relative odds (odds ratio = 1.41, 95% Cl = 1.06, 1.88) of lung cancer. No effect of diesel exhaust exposure was seen in workers 65 yr of age or older because many of these men retired shortly after the transition to diesel-powered locomotives.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Retirement transitions and spouse disability: effects on depressive symptoms

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of type of retirement (forced, early, abrupt) and spouse's disability on longitudinal change in depressive symptoms. METHODS: The analyses rely on Waves 1-4 of the Health and Retirement Survey (N = 2,649). Generalized estimating equations models with bootstrapped standard errors and adjustment for survey design and non-independence of dyad members estimate effects of retirement, type of retirement, and spouse's disability on depressive symptoms, controlling for relevant covariates. RESULTS: The results suggest that depressive symptoms increase when retirement is abrupt and perceived as too early or forced. Women retirees who stopped employment and were either forced into retirement or perceived their retirement as too early report significantly more depressive symptoms with increasing spouse activities of daily living (ADLs) limitations. There is no similar effect for men. In contrast, for working retirees who retired on time, depressive symptoms decrease with increasing spouse ADLs. DISCUSSION: These results highlight the importance of retirement context on postretirement well-being. They suggest that both type of retirement transition and marital contexts such as spouse's disability influence postretirement well-being, and these effects differ by gender.     

Recently Retired Non-professional Men and Their Perceptions of Retirement

Objective: To provide insights for primary health workers into the nature of retirement for non-professional men, to assist the promotion of healthy ageing for men. Method: The qualitative methodology of phenomenology was utilised to explore the recent retirement experience of ten men that were salutogenic (health creating) in nature, especially in relation to their social health. Information was gained via self-reflective journals and in-depth interviews. Findings: Four major themes were revealed which positively impacted on the men's social health. Retirement was perceived as (a) an anticipated life stage; (b) a time of freedom; (c) a time of activity, especially as a practical support to others; and (d) a time to consolidate primary relationships. Conclusions: The study supports other Australian literature on retirement and gives insights from the perspective of recently retired non-professional men. It provides further information for those wishing to promote the social health of older men in the Australian context at both an individual and policy level.     

Do good psychosocial working conditions prolong working lives? Findings from a prospective study in Sweden

Due to an ageing population, governments in European countries are striving to keep older workers longer in the workforce. Remarkably few studies have paid attention to the influence of psychosocial working conditions on timing of retirement for older workers in and beyond normative retirement age. The aim of the present study was to examine whether good psychosocial working conditions contribute to prolonged working lives among older workers (59 years and above). A particular question was whether such conditions increase in importance with age. Seven waves (2006–2018) of the Swedish Longitudinal Occupational Survey of Health (SLOSH) were used (N?=?6000, observations?=?10,632). Discrete-time event history analyses showed that higher levels of job resources (decision authority [OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.06–1.22], skill use [OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.07–1.29], learning opportunities [OR 1.22, 95% CI 1.13–1.31], social support [OR 1.29 (95% CI 1.16–1.42], work-time control [OR 1.07, 95% CI 1.01–1.13], and reward [OR 1.40, 95% CI 1.24–1.57])—but not lower levels of job demands (quantitative and emotional demands or effort)—were associated with working longer (continued work two years later). Also, low effort-reward imbalance (OR 0.84 [95% CI 0.73–0.96]) was associated with working longer. In addition, skill use, work-time control, reward, and low effort-reward imbalance increased in importance with age for continued work. These results suggest that providing older workers with control over their work tasks, giving opportunities for learning and using their skills, as well as rewarding and acknowledging their achievements, may keep them in the workforce longer. Especially, job resources may grow in importance with age.

     

The role of job-related rewards in retirement planning

The authors used data from the first wave of the Health and Retirement Study ( F. Juster and R. Suzman 1995) to evaluate whether certain job-related gratifications might reduce retirement planning. Three definitions of retirement planning were evaluated and then regressed separately on a set of variables that included 3 types of job-related satisfactions (intrinsic gratification, positive social relations, and ascendance in the workplace) and 7 covariates: education, age, sex, health, marital status, race, and pension eligibility. Findings indicated that jobs high in ascendance were related to an increase in certain types of retirement planning, but jobs high in intrinsic rewards and positive social relations were related to less planning, regardless of how planning was defined. The findings suggest that information about work-related rewards may be useful in targeting individuals who might benefit from retirement planning programs, in developing planning programs to help workers realize more complex retirement plans, and in assisting employers who hope to retain older workers.     

Locus of control and retirement preparation

Locus of desired control and participation in a retirement preparation program were investigated in relation to retirement attitudes and adjustment. Fifty-nine older workers and retirees, approximately half of whom had participated in a retirement preparation program, completed measures assessing locus of control, attitudes toward work and retirement, life satisfaction and self-esteem. Retirement preparation was found to maintain both the desirability and expectancy of internal control and positive retirement attitudes among the worker participants relative to controls. Retirees did not differ on measures of adjustment; those with retirement preparation, however, evidenced higher externality than those without. Although the results indicated that internal expectancies were associated with positive psychological functioning, the role of retirement preparation in maintaining such expectancies into retirement remained equivocal.     

Are healthier older adults choosing managed care?

PURPOSE: We attempt to determine whether older workers and early retirees avoid managed care plans and to explore whether health plan choices are linked to the health status of workers or their spouses. DESIGN AND METHODS: We use the responses of those born between 1931 and 1941 to the 1994 and 1998 waves of the Health and Retirement Survey. We analyze current workers and early retirees separately, using cross-tabular and multinomial logit techniques. RESULTS: Among older adults with active worker coverage, 60% were enrolled in either a health maintenance organization or preferred provider organization in 1998; 42% of early retirees were enrolled in these plans. Those with a choice of plans were even more likely to be in managed care. When demographic characteristics, time, and differences in the benefits and cost of the various plans offered by an employer are controlled for, health status (measured in a variety of ways) has little bearing on an older worker's choice of health plan. IMPLICATIONS: These findings suggest that older workers choose plans much as younger workers do. Employers are likely to continue to offer managed care as their workers age. The lack of unidirectional findings on health status bodes well for the long-term practicality of managed care under Medicare. Many workers are choosing an insurance type early in their tenure and remaining with that type of plan as they age.     

Retirement patterns from career employment

PURPOSE: This article investigates how older Americans leave their career jobs and estimates the extent of intermediate labor force activity (bridge jobs) between full-time work on a career job and complete labor-force withdrawal. DESIGN AND METHODS: Using data from the Health and Retirement Study, we explored the work histories and retirement patterns of a cohort of retirees aged 51 to 61 in 1992 during a 10-year period in both cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts. We examined determinants of retirement patterns in a multinomial logistic regression model. RESULTS: We found that a majority of older Americans with career jobs retire gradually, in stages, rather than all at once. We also found that the utilization of bridge jobs was more common among younger respondents, respondents without defined-benefit pension plans, and respondents at both the lower and upper ends of the wage distribution. IMPLICATIONS: Older Americans are now working longer than pre-1980s trends would have predicted. Given concerns about the traditional sources of retirement income (Social Security, employer pensions, and prior savings), older Americans may have to rely more on earnings. This article suggests that many are already doing so by moving to bridge jobs after leaving their career employment.     

The 2008–2009 Great Recession and employment outcomes among older workers

This study examined whether economic changes related to the 2008–2009 Recession were associated with employment status and job quality indicators among older workers in Europe and Israel. Data were derived from 4917 respondents (16,090 observations both before and after the recession) from 13 countries who participated in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. Annual data on gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, life expectancy, and quarterly unemployment rates were assigned to employment assessments from 2004 to 2013. Using difference-in-differences models, we assessed the recession’s implications on individual employment outcomes, while isolating cyclical variation within countries and individual changes over time. Among older workers, decreases in GDP were associated with an increase in the likelihood of being unemployed and a decrease in the likelihood of being retired. An increasing country-level unemployment rate had a significant effect on aspects of job quality: lower prospects for job advancement, lower job security, and higher job satisfaction. Economic recessions are thus negatively associated with employment outcomes for older workers. However, malleable policy-related factors such as longer tenure and improved general health can limit the negative employment and job quality outcomes following a recession.     

Workers' ignorance of retirement benefits

PURPOSE: This study considered the extent of workers' unfamiliarity with retirement benefits, a problem that could compromise informed retirement planning. DESIGN AND METHODS: Among workers in the 1992 Health and Retirement Study, we examined the frequency of "don't know" responses to question series about employer pensions, health insurance, and Social Security. RESULTS: Eligible workers readily offered responses about the shared, public details of pension plans, but knowledge about personal pension wealth was lacking for one third of persons in defined benefit plans and for one fifth of those in defined contribution plans. Among household financial respondents, 14% did not know about health insurance continuation after retirement, and 52% could not offer an expected Social Security amount. Such nonresponse was patterned by proximity to retirement and by social and occupational factors. IMPLICATIONS: More than a problem of missing data, these findings argue for a theoretical reconsideration of the role of financial knowledge in retirement behavior. Ignorance of benefits is probably less a problem of disclosure than of workers' inattention to available information.