Etiology of late free flap failures occurring after hospital discharge

OBJECTIVES: Vascular compromise of free flaps most commonly occurs in the immediate postoperative period in association with failure of the microvascular anastomosis. Rarely do flaps fail in the late postoperative period. It is not well understood why free flaps can fail after 7 postoperative days. We undertook a case review series to assess possible causes of late free flap failure. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review at two tertiary referral centers: Oregon Health Sciences University and University of Alabama at Birmingham. METHODS: A review of 1,530 flaps performed in 1,592 patients between 1998 and 2006 were evaluated to identify late flap failure. Late flap failure was defined as failure occurring after postoperative day 7 or on follow-up visits after hospital discharge. A prospective database with the following variables was examined: age, medical comorbidities, postreconstructive complications (fistula or infection), hematoma, seroma, previous surgery, radiation therapy, intraoperative findings at the time of debridement, nutrition, and, possibly, etiologies. RESULTS: A total of 13 patients with late graft failure were identified in this study population of 1,530 (less than 1%) flaps; 6 radial forearm fasciocutaneous flaps, 2 rectus abdominis myocutaneous flaps, 4 fibular flaps, and 1 latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap underwent late failure. The time to necrosis was a median of 21 (range, 7-90) days. Etiology was believed to possibly be pressure on the pedicle in the postoperative period in four patients (no sign of local wound issues at the pedicle), infection (abscess formation) in three patients, and regrowth of residual tumor in six patients. Loss occurring within 1 month was more common in radial forearm flaps and was presented in the context of a normal appearing wound at the anastomotic site, as opposed to loss occurring after 1 month, which happened more commonly in fibula flaps secondary to recurrence. CONCLUSION: Although late free flap failure is rare, local factors such as infection and possibly pressure on the pedicle can be contributing factors. Patients presenting with late flap failure should be evaluated for residual tumor growth.     

Factors involved in free flap thrombosis after reconstructive surgery for head and neck cancer

Objective

Reconstructive surgery in which a free flap is used following extended resection for head and neck cancer has been popular for more than a quarter of a century. However, postoperative total flap necrosis has not been completely resolved, and few studies have analyzed the specific risk factors for this complication.

Methods

Over a three-year period from 2005 to 2007, 388 flaps were used for reconstructive surgery on 384 patients at Department of Head and Neck of the Cancer Institute Hospital of Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, and the results for 22 flaps with thrombosis were analyzed.

Results

The only statistically significant risk factor for free flap thrombosis was the history of radical concurrent chemoradiotherapy.

Conclusions

It will be necessary to keep this observation in mind when performing salvage surgery following chemoradiotherapy, which is expected to be performed more often in the future.     

Analysis of 59 cases with free flap thrombosis after reconstructive surgery for head and neck cancer

Objective

There have been few reports addressing methods of dealing with free flap thrombosis after reconstructive surgery for head and neck cancer. The present study, through a detailed analysis of the subsequent course of patients who developed postoperative flap thrombosis, aims to clarify possible methods of salvage surgery in the event of vascular occlusion despite rigorous postoperative follow-up.

Methods

We analyzed 59 cases of postoperative thrombosis in 1031 patients who underwent free flap transfer and considered the most appropriate salvage surgery in the event of total flap necrosis.

Results

The flap salvage rate through vascular reanastomosis was highest for radial forearm flaps, with salvage of jejunal flaps being problematic if postoperative thrombosis occurred. For cases of postoperative thrombosis among patients who underwent reconstruction using a jejunal flap, the period of hospitalization was significantly extended for those patients in whom a second jejunal flap grafting was impossible. For cases of postoperative thrombosis among patients who underwent reconstruction using a radial forearm flap (FA), rectus abdominis flap (RA), or anterior lateral thigh flap (ALT), no significant difference was observed between those undergoing re-grafting with a free flap and those with a pedicled flap.

Conclusion

We concluded that, among patients who undergo reconstruction using a jejunal flap, thrombosis should be discovered at an early stage to enable another jejunal flap re-grafting. For patients who undergo reconstruction using a FA, RA, or ALT, if thrombosis can be discovered at an early stage, there is a possibility of salvaging the flap by means of vascular reanastomosis. If it should prove impossible to salvage the flap, however, primary suture of the defect or reconstruction with a pedicled flap may also be considered.     

Reduction of salivary flow with botulinum toxin: extended report on 33 patients with drooling, salivary fistulas, and sialadenitis

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: The aim of the study was the evaluation of the clinical data of 33 patients who had had drooling attributable to various diseases, salivary fistulas, and sialadenitis and had been treated with injection of botulinum toxin type A (Botox). A controlled follow-up study documenting efficiency, possible side effects, and duration of the effect of treatment was also performed. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective clinical evaluation. METHODS: Thirty-three patients with drooling attributable to head and neck carcinoma, neurodegenerative diseases, stroke, or idiopathic hypersalivation or with salivary fistula or chronic sialadenitis received injections of 20 to 65 U botulinum toxin type A into salivary glands under sonographic control. The entire salivary flow rate and the output per minute of the salivary analytes thiocyanate, total protein, alpha-amylase, acid phosphatase, kallikrein, and immunoglobulin A were measured at various times before and after injection. The patients were examined with regard to severity of their symptoms, including sonographic control investigation of their cephalic salivary glands. RESULTS: Twenty-six patients (79% of all patients) reported a distinct improvement of their symptoms after toxin injection. Seven patients noted a return of high salivation rates and requested a second injection after 4 to 7 months. Duration of toxin effect varied widely among individuals. In general, salivary flow rates and thiocyanate output dropped sharply within 1 week after injection and had increased again after a period of 12 to 16 weeks. Conversely, amylase outputs increased during this period, whereas the outputs of the other analytes remained roughly constant. Sonography did not reveal any major changes in salivary gland parenchyma, and side effects were not noted. CONCLUSION: Reduction of salivary flow in patients with drooling, salivary fistulas, or chronic sialadenitis by local injection of botulinum toxin type A into the salivary glands proved to be a dependable therapy for these disorders, as shown in the present extended report on 33 patients. Side effects were not observed. The effect of toxin application lasted for approximately 3 months. Based on their results, the authors recommend botulinum toxin injection as the therapy of choice in patients with the problem of drooling.     

Cervical-transoral robotic oropharyngectomy and thin anterolateral thigh free flap

The transoral robotic oropharyngectomy surgical technique was initially described for resection of small stage T1 or T2 lesions and the surgical defect is usually allowed to heal by secondary intention. We propose a refined surgical approach adapted to more complex situations such as salvage surgery and surgery in an irradiated field, based on previous experience in open approaches for oropharyngeal cancer. Via a combined cervical-transoral approach, we perform en bloc resection of the parapharyngeal space combined with transoral robotic lateral oropharyngectomy. Reconstruction of the surgical defect is performed with a thin anterolateral thigh free flap.     

Head and neck epithelioid sarcoma in a child: diagnostic dilemma and anterolateral thigh free flap reconstruction

The diagnostic dilemma is discussed of a child who presented with a granulomatous process of the external ear that was originally considered granuloma annulare and was later diagnosed as epithelioid sarcoma. We present the surgical treatment and the first report of reconstruction of a lateral skull base and cheek defect with an anterolateral thigh (ALT) free flap in a pediatric patient.     

Repair of post-laryngectomy pharyngocutaneous fistulas using a pectoralis major flap

IntroductionThe pectoralis major flap is a reconstructive option to consider in the treatment of pharyngocutaneous fistula after a total laryngectomy. There are not large studies assessing variables related to pharyngocutaneous fistula recurrence after removal of the larynx. Our objectives were to review the results obtained with this type of treatment when pharyngocutaneous fistula appears in laryngectomized patients, and to evaluate variables related to the results.MethodsWe retrospectively reviewed our results using either a myocutaneous or fasciomuscular pectoralis major flap to repair pharyngocutaneous fistula in 50 patients.ResultsThere were no cases of flap necrosis. Oral intake after fistula repair with a pectoralis major flap was restored in 94% of cases. Fistula recurrence occurred in 22 cases (44%), and it was associated with a lengthening of the hospital stay. Performing the flap as an emergency procedure was associated with a significantly higher risk of fistula recurrence. Hospital stay was significantly shorter when a salivary tube was placed.ConclusionsThe pectoralis major flap is a useful approach to repair pharyngocutaneous fistula. Placing salivary tubes during fistula repair significantly reduces hospital stay and complication severity in case of pharyngocutaneous fistula recurrence.     

Fistula analysis after radial forearm free flap reconstruction of hypopharyngeal defects

Objective/Hypothesis: To evaluate risk factors and management options for fistula formation after hypopharyngeal reconstruction using the radial forearm free flap reconstruction. Study Design: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Patients undergoing radial forearm free flap for hypopharyngeal reconstruction were retrospectively reviewed. A total of 104 patients underwent this procedure between 2001 and 2007. Fistulas were classified as mild or severe depending on the response to conservative management. Demographics, operative details, pathology, and postoperative course were recorded as the prognostic variables. Univariate analysis and a logistic regression model were used to identify associated factors. Results: Pharyngocutaneous fistula developed in 30 (28.8%) patients. Recurrence, cancer stage, cancer location, type of ablative surgery, and the addition of other oncologic procedures were identified as significant predictors of fistula formation. Fistula significantly increases hospital stay and recipient site complications such as flap survival, infection, and bleeding. Functional results such as diet, deformity, and socialization were also negatively affected by fistula development. One third of the cases responded to conservative management, and 20 cases required a surgical procedure to definitively close the fistulous track. Conclusions: Fistula formation remains a significant cause of morbidity associated with hypopharyngealreconstruction. Postoperative course and successful preventive strategies are discussed.     

Microsurgical free flap transfer in previously irradiated and operated necks: feasibility and safety

Objectives

Microsurgery is difficult to perform in necks that have been previously irradiated and operated upon because of the limited availability of recipient vessels. The objective of this study was to clarify the feasibility and safety of performing microsurgery in necks that are scarred and fibrous owing to previous treatment.

Methods

Twenty patients whose necks were previously irradiated and operated upon and who underwent free tissue transfer were included in this study. All patients had been previously administered an average of 60.7 (range, 30–95) Gy of radiotherapy. Thirteen patients had undergone hemilateral neck dissections, 5 patients had undergone bilateral neck dissections, 8 patients had undergone (pharyngo)laryngectomies, and 10 patients had undergone prior flap transfer. The success rate of microsurgery and the selection of recipient vessels were examined.

Results

All recipient vessels could be adopted in the neck field without vessel grafting. One patient developed necrosis of the flap, which was salvaged with retransfer of another flap after trimming the same cervical vessels. For the remaining 19 patients, free tissue transfers were successful.

Conclusions

Suitable recipient vessels are residual and available even in the previously irradiated and operated neck field. When performed properly, free tissue transfer in the previously treated neck is not as risky a surgery as was generally believed.     

游离股动脉蒂穿支皮瓣在口颊癌术后缺损修复中的临床应用

目的 探讨游离股动脉穿支皮瓣的临床解剖及其在口颊癌术后缺损修复中的应用。方法 2015年12月—2019年6月选取接受了游离股动脉穿支皮瓣颊修复术男性口颊癌患者13例,年龄37～61岁,平均48.5岁。病理类型为鳞状细胞癌。据TNM分期其中T4N0M0 5例,T4N1M0 2例,T3N1M0 2例,T3N2M0 4例。病程3～16个月,平均9.8个月。游离股动脉穿支皮瓣的具体选择形式包括：(1)单纯穿支皮瓣7例;(2)穿支嵌合体肌皮瓣6例。结果 术中皮瓣大小规划范围在6.5 cm×4.0 cm～10.0 cm×6.5 cm,厚度为2.5～3.5 cm。股动脉穿支血管蒂长为(6.2±0.4)cm,供区聚拢闭合缝合。13例皮瓣均成活,供受区一期愈合。随访患者12～30个月,平均21.3个月。重建的口腔外观无肿胀偏移,外形美观,功能良好。供区余轻微瘢痕,肌肉功能良好。结论 游离股动脉穿支皮瓣可用于修复口颊癌根治术后局部缺损。     

Radial forearm osteocutaneous free flap in maxillofacial and oromandibular reconstructions

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: The radial forearm osteocutaneous free flap is an excellent reconstructive modality for oromandibular and maxillofacial reconstruction in certain well-defined circumstances. The initial concern over donor site morbidity and the ability of the bone to reconstruct mandibular defects have led to only a few published series. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study of the experience of two tertiary medical centers with radial forearm osteocutaneous free flap. METHODS: Retrospectively, 52 patients were studied who underwent radial forearm osteocutaneous free flap reconstruction for cancer (49 cases) and trauma (3 cases). Bone length and skin paddle harvested, general morbidity (hematoma, wound infection, and dehiscence), recipient site morbidity (nonunion of neomandible, flap failure, and bone or plate exposure), and donor site morbidity (radius bone fracture, plate exposure, and skin graft failure) were reviewed. RESULTS: The average skin paddle size was 55.1 cm (range, 15-112 cm). The average radius bone harvest length was 6.3 cm (range, 2.5-11 cm). Donor site complications included tendon exposure (3 cases), radius bone fracture (1 case), and exposure of the plate (0). Recipient site complications included nonunion of the mandible (4), exposed mandible (1), exposed mandibular plates (2), exposed maxillary plates or bone (0), venous compromise (1), and flap failure (1). Two patients had perioperative deaths. CONCLUSION: Radial forearm osteocutaneous free flap is a valuable and viable option for oromandibular and maxillofacial reconstruction.     

Functional evaluation of mandibular reconstruction with bone free flap. A GETTEC study

ObjectivesTo assess the functional results of oromandibular reconstruction by free bone flap, in terms of swallowing, speech and esthetics.Materials and methodsA transverse multicenter study included 134 patients reconstructed by free bone flap between 1998 and 2016, with more than 6 months’ follow-up, in 9 centers. A standardized questionnaire collected data on patients and treatment. Study endpoints comprised: weight loss, mouth opening, gastrostomy dependence, type of feeding, and DHI score. The impact of patient baseline characteristics on these functional criteria was explored by uni/multivariate analysis.ResultsNinety of the 134 patients had cancer. Fibula flap was mainly used (80%). 94% of reconstructions were primary successes. 71% of patients had pre- or post-operative radiation therapy. 88% had less than 50% lingual resection. 97% recovered oral feeding. 89% had intelligible speech. 86% judged their esthetic appearance as good/average. 9% had dental prosthetic rehabilitation. Radiation therapy and extensive lingual resection significantly impacted swallowing function (P = 0.04 and P = 0.03, respectively). Radiation therapy and oropharyngeal extension significantly increased gastrostomy dependence (P = 0.04 and P = 0.02, respectively).ConclusionOromandibular reconstruction by free bone flap enabled return to oral feeding in most cases. More than 80% of patients were satisfied with their result in terms of speech and esthetics. However, the rate of dental rehabilitation was low and the rate of complications was high.     

胸锁乳突肌瓣对腮腺浅叶切除术后负压引流效果的影响

目的探讨胸锁乳突肌瓣对腮腺浅叶切除术后负压引流效果的影响。方法收集需行腮腺浅叶切除术的病例90例,随机分为观察组(胸锁乳突肌瓣修复+负压引流)和对照组(负压引流)各45例,分别记录术后第3天、第4天、第5天24h引流量,将24h引流量≤10ml作为拔管标准,观察不同时间段的引流量、拔管率及拔管后涎瘘发生情况。利用SPSS19.0统计软件对数据进行统计学分析。结果①观察组术后第3天、第4天、第5天24h引流量均少于对照组,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。②观察组术后第3天、第4天、第5天的拔管率均高于对照组,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。③拔管后观察组的涎瘘发生率低于对照组,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论腮腺浅叶切除术后利用胸锁乳突肌瓣修复可以有效地减少术后负压引流的引流量、缩短拔管时间、降低涎瘘发生率。