反应性星形胶质细胞在颅脑创伤后作用的研究进展

颅脑创伤（TBI）是世界范围内年轻人和成年人致残、致死的最重要的原因之一。TBI死亡率高,而幸存者常伴有身体的残疾、精神障碍等后遗症,为社会发展带来了沉重的负担。星形胶质细胞是TBI后参与损伤和修复的主要细胞。近年来关于TBI继发性损害机制中反应性星形胶质细胞的研究逐渐增多,但仍有许多机制有待阐明,现对TBI后反应性星形胶质细胞参与的几种相关机制进行阐述。     

X线照射后体外培养星形胶质细胞VEGF和GFAP表达变化及意义

目的 研究X线照射体外培养的星形胶质细胞后血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)和胶质原纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)表达随时间及剂量的变化,探讨星形胶质细胞与放射性脑损伤(RBI)的关系. 方法 以5、10、15、20 Gy剂量的X线照射体外原代培养的星形胶质细胞后继续培养48 h,或以20 Gy剂量照射后分别培养4、12、24、48 h,实验均设正常对照组即未照射组.免疫荧光染色检测GFAP观察各组细胞形态学的变化;DAPI染色观察星形胶质细胞的凋亡;Western blotting检测细胞GFAP、VEGF蛋白的表达情况. 结果 与正常对照组比较,不同剂量照射组星形胶质细胞增生、增多,变形,胞体肥大肿胀,分支增多,突起增粗,GFAP染色加深,且这种变化随照射剂量和时间增加而表现更明显;与正常对照组相比,各剂量照射组星形胶质细胞凋亡率差异无统计学差异(P＞0.05); Western blotting检测显示不同剂量组、20Gy剂量照射不同时间组星形胶质细胞GFAP、VEGF蛋白的表达均不同,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).与正常对照组相比,5、10、15、20 Gy照射组和20 Gy剂量照射后各时间组GFAP、VEGF的蛋白表达均增高,且随着照射剂量的增加GFAP、VEGF的蛋白表达亦增高,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).20 Gy剂量照射后4～48 h内GFAP的表达呈时间依赖性,20 Gy剂量照射后4～24 h内VEGF的表达呈时间依赖性. 结论 X线能诱导体外培养的星形胶质细胞活化,GFAP及VEGF的表达呈时间及剂量依赖性增高,VEGF异常高表达可能是造成RBI的重要原因.     

人脑梗死后神经元与星形胶质细胞细胞骨架蛋白的改变

急性脑梗死后的病理生理机制包括细胞骨架蛋白的降解、细胞凋亡的发生、胶质细胞的反应和微循环损害等。其中 ,细胞骨架蛋白维持真核细胞的空间结构 ,包括微管、微丝或肌动蛋白丝以及中间丝 3种类型 ,参与细胞内物质转运、细胞运动、信息传递、能量转换、细胞分裂等活动 [1 ] 。其变化反映了神经细胞的存活和功能状态 ,可提示梗死后不同区域的功能状态 [2 ]。1　细胞骨架概述细胞骨架 (cytoskeleton)是由蛋白纤维交织成的立体网状结构 ,如同一种内部框架 ,充满整个细胞质的空间 ,与外侧的细胞膜和内侧的核膜存在一定的结构联系 [3]。由 3种…     

星形胶质细胞、胶质纤维酸性蛋白和抑郁症的关系

对胶质细胞、胶质纤维酸性蛋白在心境障碍神经病理学发病机制中的作用进行综述。     

癫痫大鼠海马神经元和星形胶质细胞的病理演变

目的　探讨癫痫大鼠海马神经元和星形胶质细胞在点燃后各期的病理特点、时序及机制。方法　针对匹罗卡品癫痫大鼠模型,行Nissl、免疫组化和HE染色,观察海马神经元及星形胶质细胞的病理变化。结果　癫痫持续状态后超急性期（4h）,CA3区神经元呈嗜酸性变性、胞浆深染;急性期（24h）,嗜酸性变性最为显著,神经元固缩、核仁消失、突起断裂,星形胶质细胞水肿;缄默期（7d）,CA3、CA1区及门区神经元大量坏死、脱失,胶质增生肥大,海马构筑紊乱;慢性期（6w）,CA3、CA1区出现胶质瘢痕,遗有形态正常的神经元,且颗粒细胞层增厚。结论　癫痫时海马神经元先于星形胶质细胞发生病理改变,二者均参与癫痫发生。     

中枢神经系统中星形胶质细胞活化机制的研究进展

星形胶质细胞在中枢神经系统(CNS)中含量丰富,对神经元起着支持、营养、修复等多种重要作用.在CNS损伤或外源性物质作用时,星形胶质细胞发生活化.JAK-STAT3、核因子κB(NF-κB)、丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)、TGF-β/Smad等多条信号通路共同作用,调节星形胶质细胞内相应基因的转录与表达.探究星形胶质...     

小鼠脊髓原代星形胶质细胞培养方法的建立

目的获得纯度较高的脊髓源性星形胶质细胞。方法采用小鼠脊髓神经胶质细胞的原代培养和传代培养。无菌条件下取生后1～3dICR(Institute of Cancer Research)小鼠的脊髓,剪碎后胰酶分次消化,结合机械吹打使细胞分散,制成单细胞悬液,接种于无底物黏附的玻璃培养瓶中,置37℃,5%CO2培养箱中培养。培养液为DMEM/F12混合培养液。培养9～12d待细胞达到80%～90%融合后进行摇床纯化,舍弃含脱落细胞的细胞悬液,以去除少突胶质和小胶质细胞,继续培养,待细胞铺满瓶底后传代,并对传代细胞进行形态观察和星形胶质细胞的免疫荧光鉴定,GFAP免疫细胞化学染色阳性细胞可高达98%。结果通过恒温振荡和传代后得到了形态典型,含量较高的脊髓源性星形胶质细胞。结论用无底物贴附,恒温振荡和传代方法可获得高纯度脊髓源性星形胶质细胞。     

星形胶质细胞主要细胞骨架研究的最新进展

星形胶质细胞(Astrocyte,Ast)是中枢神经系统的主要细胞成分之一,约占正常成人中枢神经系统细胞总数的40％,其功能日益受到重视.其细胞骨架主要由微丝(MF)、微管(MT)和中间纤维(IFs)3种蛋白质组成,其细胞骨架的复杂变化在中枢神经系统的生理和病理变化中发挥重要作用,本文就生理病理条件下Ast细胞骨架的复杂变化(细胞骨架的生物学特性、信号转导途径、细胞骨架的构建与其在临床疾病中变化等)作一综述.     

星形胶质细胞在脑出血后脑水肿中作用的研究

目的　观察星形细胞在脑出血急性期周围脑组织中的作用。方法　获取 30例脑出血患者出血灶周围脑组织标本 ,根据脑出血时间分为三组 ,超早期 (<8小时 ) ,8例 :早期 (8～ 4 8小时 ) ,16例 ;延期(>4 8小时 ) ,6例。应用胶质纤维酸性蛋白 (GFAP)进行免疫组织化学染色 ,观察其表达程度。结果　随着脑出血后时间的延长 ,GFAP染色灰度值越低 ,说明星形细胞增生越明显。结论　星形胶质细胞参与脑水肿的病理过程 ,并对组织修复可能具有重要作用。     

Astrocytosis and proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression in brains of scrapie-infected hamsters

Scrapie is a neurodegenerative disease in sheep and goats. Neuropathological examination shows astrocytosis. One issue is whether the astrocytosis seen in scrapie is a function of an increase in reactivity of individual cells, or whether there is actual replication of astrocytes. We used double-label immunohistochemistry for proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) to determine the mitotic state of cells and to confirm their identity as astrocytes. Brain sections from hamsters (strain LVG/LAK) infected with 139H or 263K scrapie isolates were examined. GFAP immunostaining was increased in astrocytes in most regions of the brains of scrapie-infected hamsters. These qualitative observations were confirmed by computerized image analysis quantification. A proportion of the hypertrophic astrocytes (0.5–10.8%, depending on specific location) were PCNA immunoreactive. The PCNA-immunopositive astrocytes were most frequently found in cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, subependymal areas, fimbria, caudate, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and dentate gyrus. Our results suggest that the astrocytosis seen in scrapie-infected animals is, at least in part, owing to actual replication of astrocytes in these animals. We hypothesize that the astrocytes may be an important locus for the disease process.     

Long-term effects of neonatal stress on adult conditioned place preference (CPP) and hippocampal neurogenesis

Critically ill preterm infants are often exposed to stressors that may affect neurodevelopment and behavior. We reported that exposure of neonatal mice to stressors or morphine produced impairment of adult morphine-rewarded conditioned place preference (CPP) and altered hippocampal gene expression. We now further this line of inquiry by examining both short- and long-term effects of neonatal stress and morphine treatment. Neonatal C57BL/6 mice were treated twice daily from postnatal day (P) 5 to P9 using different combinations of factors. Subsets received saline or morphine injections (2 mg/kg s.c.) or were exposed to our neonatal stress protocol (maternal separation 8 h/d × 5 d + gavage feedings ± hypoxia/hyperoxia). Short-term measures examined on P9 were neuronal fluorojade B and bromodeoxyuridine staining, along with urine corticosterone concentrations. Long-term measures examined in adult mice (>P60) included CPP learning to cocaine reward (±the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonist U50,488 injection), and adult hippocampal neurogenesis (PCNA immunolabeling). Neonatal stress (but not morphine) decreased the cocaine-CPP response and this effect was reversed by KOR stimulation. Both neonatal stress or morphine treatment increased hippocampal neurogenesis in adult mice. We conclude that reduced learning and increased hippocampal neurogenesis are both indicators that neonatal stress desensitized mice and reduced their arousal and stress responsiveness during adult CPP testing. Reconciled with other findings, these data collectively support the stress inoculation hypothesis whereby early life stressors prepare animals to tolerate future stress.     

Neuronal modulation of Schwann cell glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)

Adult rat sciatic nerves contain cytoskeletal peptides that resemble CNS glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in immunoreactivity and molecular weight. Immunohistological examination of teased nerve fascicles indicated that these peptides are expressed selectively by Schwann cells related to small axons. Radiolabelled mouse and rat CNS GFAP cDNA probes hybridized with a single, 2.7 kb RNA band in Northern blots prepared from total RNA from both rat sciatic nerve and rat brain. Sciatic nerve GFAP mRNA was detectable by this means in adult, 2 month, or 21 day postnatal rats, but not in 3,6, or 10 day postnatal rats. Sciatic nerve transection caused a marked reduction in the level of GFAP mRNA in the axotomized distal stump. We conclude that Schwann cell synthesis of GFAP is developmentally regulated and that Schwann cells, unlike astroglia, require continued trophic input from small axons in order to express GFAP.     

Differences in host serotonin innervation of intrastriatal grafts are not determined by a glial scar or chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans

Serotoninergic (5-HT) neurons of adult recipients provide a much denser innervation of striatal than ventral mesencephalic grafts implanted into the neostriatum of the rat. Moreover, grafts from both brain regions are more innervated by host 5-HT axons after implantation in neonatal than adult hosts. To test the hypothesis that differences in glial scarring or expression of the growth inhibitory molecules, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPG), be responsible for these differences in 5-HT innervation of neural grafts, we examined the 5-HT innervation, the astroglial reaction and the expression of CSPG in ventral mesencephalic grafts implanted into newborn (1-5 days old), juvenile (15 days old), or adult rats and in striatal grafts implanted in adult rats, using immunohistochemistry against 5-HT, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and CSPG. Immunostaining for GFAP showed a stronger initial gliosis (1-10 days after grafting) in neonatal than adult recipients of mesencephalic grafts, but this gliosis subsided gradually at later time points. Nevertheless, a glial scar formed at the graft-host interface in both neonatal and adult recipients, 5-10 days after transplantation, although it decreased over a longer time course--up to 60 days--in adults. Immunostained astrocytes appeared first in the host brain tissue around the graft and then immunoreactive processes and perikarya gradually invaded the graft. Immunoreactivity for CSPG was similar in neonatal and adult hosts: it was strongly expressed inside the graft early after transplantation, and almost completely down-regulated at 60 days. The reaction of adult hosts to striatal and mesencephalic grafts was similar, although GFAP was more heterogeneously distributed and CSPG immunoreactivity remained in patches inside striatal grafts, even after 60 days. The 5-HT innervation of mesencephalic grafts was much denser after implantation in newborns than in adults. It was also stronger in striatal than in mesencephalic grafts implanted in adults. Thus, the presence of a glial scar or the expression of CSPG cannot totally account for the different degrees of 5-HT innervation in the various types of neural grafts.     

Effect of epidermal growth factor on the labeling of the various RNA species and of nuclear proteins in primary rat astroglial cell cultures

This study investigated the effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on the labeling of various RNA species and of nuclear proteins in primary rat astroglial cell cultures. After 12 hours of EGF treatment in serum-free medium or chemically defined medium, significant increase in RNA labeling, and also in acid-soluble radioactivity and RNA content, was observed. The ratio RNA/DNA was significantly higher in EGF-treated cultures compared with controls. Ribosomal RNAs (28S and 18S), polyadenylated, and nonpolyadenylated RNAs showed a higher specific radioactivity in EGF-treated cultures. Among the nuclear proteins, the labeling of basic proteins was enhanced by EGF treatment, whereas that of total nuclear acidic protein (NHPs) was less modified, except for some NHPs separated by gel electrophoresis with a molecular weight (MW) approximately 95-83 and 44 kd, which were significantly more labeled in EGF-treated cultures.     

Time course of glial proliferation and glial apoptosis following excitotoxic CNS injury

Activation of microglial cells and astrocytes after CNS injury results in changes in their morphology, immunophenotype and proliferative activity and has neurotrophic as well as neurotoxic consequences. However, little is known about the exact time course of glial activation as regards their proliferative activity and their fate. In this study, quantification of the densities of proliferating and non-proliferating microglial cells and astrocytes was carried out over 30 days by counting differentially labeled cells in the striatum and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) after injection of quinolinic acid into the rat striatum. The TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-reaction was used to detect possible apoptotic mechanisms which limit the glial reaction. At 1 day post injection (p.i.) non-proliferating ameboid microglia/macrophages were seen in the striatum, but at 3 and 5 days p.i. many proliferating, ameboid microglia/macrophages and hypertrophic microglia were detected. At 10 days p.i., the time point with the highest density of hypertrophic microglia, TUNEL-positive microglial cells were observed indicating that apoptotic processes play a role in restricting this reaction. In contrast to this, at early time points, a reduction in the density and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-immunoreactivity of astrocytes in the striatum was detected. At later time points, a dense astrogliosis with proliferating astrocytes developed in the dorsal and medial striatum. At 30 days p.i., in the entire striatum a dense astrogliosis was detected. The SNr showed a short period of microglial activation and proliferation and a long lasting astrogliosis without proliferation     

Connexin-mediated communication controls cell proliferation and is essential in retinal histogenesis

Connexin (Cx) channels and hemichannels are involved in essential processes during nervous system development such as apoptosis, propagation of spontaneous activity and interkinetic nuclear movement. In the first part of this study, we extensively characterized Cx gene and protein expression during retinal histogenesis. We observed distinct spatio-temporal patterns among studied Cx and an overriding, ubiquitous presence of Cx45 in progenitor cells. The role of Cx-mediated communication was assessed by using broad-spectrum (carbenoxolone, CBX) and Cx36/Cx50 channel-specific (quinine) blockers. In vivo application of CBX, but not quinine, caused remarkable reduction in retinal thickness, suggesting changes in cell proliferation/apoptosis ratio. Indeed, we observed a decreased number of mitotic cells in CBX-injected retinas, with no significant changes in the expression of PCNA, a marker for cells in proliferative state. Taken together, our results pointed a pivotal role of Cx45 in the developing retina. Moreover, this study revealed that Cx-mediated communication is essential in retinal histogenesis, particularly in the control of cell proliferation.     

Immortalized hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) neurons induce a functional switch in the growth factor responsiveness of astroglia: involvement of basic fibroblast growth factor

Recent evidence indicates that astroglial-derived growth factors (GFs) participate in the development of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) neurons, but it is still unknown whether LHRH neurons may exert a reciprocal modulation of glial cell function. Using immortalized hypothalamic LHRH (GT_1-1) neurons in co-culture with glial cells, we have recently shown that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) plays a prominent role in the glial-induced acquisition of the mature LHRH phenotype by GT_1-1 cells. We have resorted to this model and combined biochemical and morphological approaches to study whether the response of glial cells to a number of GFs (including bFGF, insulin-like growth factor I, IGF-I, epidermal growth factor, EGF and insulin) expressed during LHRH neuron differentiation, is modulated by co-culture with pure LHRH neurons. Pre-treatment of hypothalamic astrocytes with an inactive (‘priming’) dose of bFGF for 12 h powerfully increased astroglia proliferative response to IGF-I (10 ng/ml), EGF (10 g/ml) and insulin (10 μg/ml), inducing a 65–100% increase in the [³H]thymidine incorporation compared to untreated cultures. When astroglial cells and developing GT_1-1 neurons were co-cultured for 5 days in vitro (DIV), the [³H]thymidine incorporation was significantly higher than in astroglial cells cultured without neurons. Application of the different GFs to the co-culture for either 12 or 24 h further stimulated DNA synthesis to various extent according to the GF applied and the time of application. Localization of the proliferating cells by dual immunohistochemical staining, followed by cell counting and bromodeoxiuridine (BrdU) labeling index calculation, revealed that the incorporation of BrdU was restricted to the nuclei of LHRH-immunopositive neurons. Such changes were accompanied by extensive morphological alterations of astroglial and LHRH fiber networks, whereas neutralization of bFGF activity in GT_1-1 neuron–glial co-cultures by a bFGF-antibody, dramatically counteracted the observed effects. The functional switch of astroglia proliferative response to GFs coupled to the potent morphological and functional modifications of developing glia and pure LHRH neurons observed in vitro, support a bidirectional interaction between immortalized LHRH neurons and astroglial cells and identify bFGF as a key player in this crosstalk.     

Impairment of dentate gyrus neuronal progenitor cell differentiation in a mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy

Unilateral intrahippocampal injection of kainic acid (KA) in adult mice induces an epileptic focus replicating major histopathological features of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). In this model, neurogenesis is impaired in the lesioned dentate gyrus, although cell proliferation transiently is increased bilaterally in the subgranular zone (SGZ). To investigate further the relationship between epileptogenesis and neurogenesis, we compared the differentiation of cells born shortly before and after KA injection. Immunohistochemical staining for doublecortin and PSA-NCAM, two markers of young neurons, revealed a rapid downregulation of both markers ipsilaterally, whereas they were increased transiently on the contralateral side. To determine whether KA treatment directly affects neural progenitors in the SGZ, dividing cells were prelabeled with 5'-bromo-2'deoxyuridine (BrdU) treatment before unilateral injection of KA. Double staining with the proliferation marker PCNA showed that prelabeled BrdU cells survived KA exposure and proliferated bilaterally. Unexpectedly, the neuronal differentiation of these cells, as assessed after 2 weeks with doublecortin and NeuN triple-staining, occurred to the same extent as on the contralateral side. Only 5% of pre-labeled BrdU cells were GFAP-positive within the lesion. Therefore, SGZ progenitor cells committed to a neuronal phenotype before KA treatment complete their differentiation despite the rapid down-regulation of doublecortin and PSA-NCAM. These findings suggest impaired fate commitment and/or early differentiation of proliferating cells in the lesioned dentate gyrus. Loss of neurogenesis in this TLE model likely reflects an irreversible alteration of the SGZ germinal niche during development of the epileptic focus and may therefore be relevant for human TLE.     

Morphine-enhanced apoptosis in selective brain regions of neonatal rats

Prolonged neonatal opioid exposure has been associated with: antinociceptive tolerance, long-term neurodevelopmental delay, cognitive, and motor impairment. Morphine has also been shown to induce apoptotic cell death in vitro studies, but its in vivo effect in developing rat brain is unknown. Thus, we hypothesized that prolongued morphine administration in neonatal rats in a model of antinociceptive tolerance and dependence is associated with increased neuroapoptosis. We analyzed neonatal rats from the following groups (1) naïve group (n = 6); (2) control group (normal saline (NS), n = 5), and (3) morphine group (n = 8). Morphine sulfate or equal volume of NS was injected subcutaneously twice daily for 6½ days starting on postnatal day (PD) 1. Development of antinociceptive tolerance was previously confirmed by Hot Plate test on the 7th day. Evidence of neuronal and glial apoptosis was determined by cleaved caspase-3 immunofluorescence combined with specific markers. At PD7, morphine administration after 6½ days significantly increased the density of apoptotic cells in the cortex and amygdala, but not in the hippocampus, hypothalamus, or periaqueductal gray. Apoptotic cells exhibited morphology analogous to neurons. Irrespective of the treatment, only a very few individual microglia but not astrocytes were caspase-3 positive. In summary, repeated morphine administration in neonatal rats (PD1–7) is associated with increased supraspinal apoptosis in distinct anatomical regions known to be important for sensory (cortex) and emotional memory processing (amygdala). Brain regions important for learning (hippocampus), and autonomic and nociceptive processing (hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray) were not affected. Lack of widespread glial apoptosis or robust glial activation following repeated morphine administration suggests that glia might not be affected by chronic morphine at this early age. Future studies should investigate long-term behavioral sequelae of demonstrated enhanced apoptosis associated with prolonged morphine administration in a neonatal rat model.