Finite-element models of the human head

A review is presented of the existing finite-element (FE) models for the biomechanics of human head injury. Finite element analysis can be an important tool in describing the injury biomechanics of the human head. Complex geometric and material properties pose challenges to FE modelling. Various assumptions and simplifications are made in model development that require experimental validation. More recent models incorporate anatomic details with higher precision. The cervical vertebral column and spinal cord are included. Model results have been more qualitative than quantitative owing to the lack of adequate experimental validation. Advances include transient stress distribution in the brain tissue, frequency responses, effects of boundary conditions, pressure release mechanism of the foramen magnum and the spinal cord, verification of rotation and cavitation theories of brain injury, and protective effects of helmets. These theoretical results provide a basic understanding of the internal biomechanical responses of the head under various dynamic loading conditions. Basic experimental research is still needed to determine more accurate material properties and injury tolerance criteria, so that FE models can fully exercise their analytical and predictive power for the study and prevention of human head injury.     

关于头部组织材料性能敏感性对颅内压力响应的研究

应用有限元法 (finiteelementmethod)和试验设计技术 (design of experimentDOE)研究人头部颅骨(skull)、脑脊液 (cerebral spinal fluidCSF)和脑髓 (brain)材料性能的敏感性对颅内因撞击而产生的压力响应。该研究采用头部的有限元模型 ,用三因子、三层次的因子试验设计对影响颅内因撞击而引起的压力的颅骨、脑脊液和脑髓的材料性质的敏感性进行分析。研究结果进一步证实了颅骨、脑脊液、脑髓的材料性能对颅内因撞击而引起的压力的重要影响。本研究为进一步的头部的有限元分析提供了新的见解 ,并提出了对头部组织的材料性能作更进一步的探索。     

Viscoelastic Properties of the Rat Brain in the Sagittal Plane: Effects of Anatomical Structure and Age

Rat is the most commonly used animal model for the study of traumatic brain injury. Recent advances in imaging and computational modeling technology offer the promise of biomechanical models capable of resolving individual brain structures and offering greater insight into the causes and consequences of brain injury. However, there is insufficient data on the mechanical properties of brain structures available to populate these models. In this study, we used microindentation to determine viscoelastic properties of different anatomical structures in sagittal slices of juvenile and adult rat brain. We find that the rat brain is spatially heterogeneous in this anatomical plane supporting previous results in the coronal plane. In addition, the brain becomes stiffer and more heterogeneous as the animal matures. This dynamic, region-specific data will support the development of more biofidelic computational models of brain injury biomechanics and the testing of hypotheses about the manner in which different anatomical structures are injured in a head impact.     

Rotational Head Kinematics in Football Impacts: An Injury Risk Function for Concussion

Recent research has suggested a possible link between sports-related concussions and neurodegenerative processes, highlighting the importance of developing methods to accurately quantify head impact tolerance. The use of kinematic parameters of the head to predict brain injury has been suggested because they are indicative of the inertial response of the brain. The objective of this study is to characterize the rotational kinematics of the head associated with concussive impacts using a large head acceleration dataset collected from human subjects. The helmets of 335 football players were instrumented with accelerometer arrays that measured head acceleration following head impacts sustained during play, resulting in data for 300,977 sub-concussive and 57 concussive head impacts. The average sub-concussive impact had a rotational acceleration of 1230 rad/s² and a rotational velocity of 5.5 rad/s, while the average concussive impact had a rotational acceleration of 5022 rad/s² and a rotational velocity of 22.3 rad/s. An injury risk curve was developed and a nominal injury value of 6383 rad/s² associated with 28.3 rad/s represents 50% risk of concussion. These data provide an increased understanding of the biomechanics associated with concussion and they provide critical insight into injury mechanisms, human tolerance to mechanical stimuli, and injury prevention techniques.     

交通事故中颈部损伤的有限元模型研究现状

汽车交通事故是当今世界造成儿童和年轻人死亡的主要原因,其中头颈部的损伤是交通事故中最为常见的致命性损伤.由于碰撞条件复杂和不可重复,再加上尸体和动物研究的伦理问题,致使头颈部损伤机理的实验研究存在较大困难,因此有限元分析在人体头-颈部耐撞性研究得到广泛应用.有限元方法的应用对于交通事故中不同撞击条件损伤程度的评估以及汽车工业损伤保护标准的开发起重要作用.本文从头颈部损伤机理、有限元几何模型获取、有限元网格划分,及所研究材料特性和实验验证方法等方面,对近年来国际上开发的应用有限元模型对交通事故中的头颈部损伤的研究现状进行综述,并对各个模型的优势和特点加以分析归纳,并对未来相关研究提出建议.     

Tissue biomechanics of the human head are altered by Thiel embalming,restricting its use for biomechanical validation

Thiel embalming is a well‐known method of anatomical fixation giving lifelike optical and haptic tissue properties. Beyond these characteristics, Thiel embalming may also be a promising method to provide lifelike tissues for validation purposes of human head biomechanics. Recent investigations using Thiel‐embalmed human tissues of the upper and lower limb yielded contradicting biomechanical results on fixation‐induced changes in the tissues' load‐deformation behavior. It is to date unclear if Thiel embalming may have a softening or stiffening effect on human soft tissues or no global effect on biomechanics compared to the fresh state, with the latter being the most desirable outcome. The given study aimed at assessing the effects of Thiel embalming on the uniaxial tensile properties of human head soft tissues. Age‐matched fresh and Thiel‐embalmed dura mater, temporalis muscle, temporalis muscle fascia, and scalp samples were examined. Dura, fascia, and scalp samples showed significantly different elastic moduli compared to fresh tissues (all P < 0.01). The observed ultimate tensile strength supports the theory of an increased collagen crosslinking of the embalmed tissues when compared to the fresh state. Thiel‐embalmed muscles failed any tensile testing approach as a result of the muscles dissolving due to the embalming. Furthermore, collagen integrity seems altered in scanning electron microscopy by the Thiel embalming, limiting their use for ultrastructural failure analyses. Thiel‐embalmed soft tissues may consequently not serve to reflect the biomechanical properties of the human head. Consequently, the application of Thiel embalming should be limited to preliminary tests for biomechanical purposes. Clin. Anat. 32:903–913, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

10岁儿童头部有限元模型的建立及验证

运用ANSYS ICEM CFD以及HYPERMESH软件对10岁儿童头部几何模型进行合理的网格划分,获得具有高度解剖学细节的10岁儿童头部有限元模型。利用MADYMO软件自带的假人,模拟一起典型跌落事故中,受伤儿童从3个不同高度跌落时人体的动力学响应过程,并计算头部与地面碰撞接触瞬间的方位和速度等运动学参数。然后将这些参数输入到10岁儿童头部有限元模型中,模拟头部与地面的碰撞过程,并分析与损伤相关的生物力学参数。结果表明,颅骨的最大应力和最大应变分布在枕骨右侧,与碰撞点的位置较为吻合,但均未超过颅骨的耐受极限。利用颅内压力可较好地预测脑组织的损伤程度,而利用脑组织的von mises应力可较好地判断脑组织的损伤位置。事故重建的结果表明,该模型具有较好的生物逼真度,可以用于儿童头部损伤生物力学的研究。     

Clinical and anatomical observations of a two-headed lamb

The clinical and anatomical features of a live-born diprosopic lamb are described. There are no complete anatomical analyses of two-faced lambs in the literature despite the frequency of conjoined twinning in sheep. The lamb had two heads fused in the occipital region. Each head had two eyes. The pinnae of the medial ears were fused. Caudal to the neck the lamb appeared grossly normal. The lamb was unable to raise its heads or stand. Both heads showed synchronous sucking motions and cranial reflexes were present. Nystagmus, strabismus, and limb incoordination were present. The respiratory and heart rates were elevated. There was a grade IV murmur over the left heart base and a palpable thrill on the left side. Each head possessed a normal nasopharynx, oropharynx, and tongue. There was a singular laryngopharnyx and esophagus although the hyoid apparatus was partially duplicated. The cranial and cervical musculature reflected the head duplications. The aortic trunk emerged from the right ventricle just to the right of the conus arteriosus. A ventricular septal defect, patent foramen ovale, and ductus arteriosus were present along with malformed atrioventricular valves. Brainstem fusion began at the cranial medulla oblongata between cranial nerves IX and XII. The cerebella were separate but small. The ventromedial structures from each medulla oblongata were compressed into an extraneous midline remnant of tissue which extended caudally to the level of T2. The clinical signs therefore reflected the anatomical anomalies. A possible etiology for this diprosopus might be the presence early in development of an excessively large block of chordamesoderm. This would allow for the formation of two head folds and hence two "heads."     

儿童头部有限元模型研究进展

头部损伤是导致儿童死亡与伤残的重要原因,对儿童头部损伤生物力学的深入研究意义重大。近年来,通过构建真实的儿童头部有限元模型来研究儿童头部损伤的方法日益成熟,逐步代替了尸体实验、动物实验以及物理实验。对儿童头部有限元模型的年龄特点、构建方法、模型应用以及发展趋势等进行较为全面的综述,并对该领域还有待研究的内容以及未来的发展方向做出展望。     

The Role of the Sutures in Biomechanical Dynamic Simulation of a Macaque Cranial Finite Element Model: Implications for the Evolution of Craniofacial Form

The global biomechanical impact of cranial sutures on the face and cranium during dynamic conditions is not well understood. It is hypothesized that sutures act as energy absorbers protecting skulls subjected to dynamic loads. This hypothesis predicts that sutures have a significant impact on global patterns of strain and cranial structural stiffness when analyzed using dynamic simulations; and that this global impact is influenced by suture material properties. In a finite element model developed from a juvenile Rhesus macaque cranium, five different sets of suture material properties for the zygomaticotemporal sutures were tested. The static and dynamic analyses produced similar results in terms of strain patterns and reaction forces, indicating that the zygomaticotemporal sutures have limited impact on global skull mechanics regardless of loading design. Contrary to the functional hypothesis tested in this study, the zygomaticotemporal sutures did not absorb significant amounts of energy during dynamic simulations regardless of loading speed. It is alternatively hypothesized that sutures are mechanically significant only insofar as they are weak points on the cranium that must be shielded from unduly high stresses so as not to disrupt vitally important growth processes. Thus, sutural and overall cranial form in some vertebrates may be optimized to minimize or otherwise modulate sutural stress and strain. Anat Rec, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effect of isolated hip abductor fatigue on single-leg landing mechanics and simulated ACL loading

BackgroundAltered movement biomechanics are a risk factor for ACL injury. While hip abductor weakness has been shown to negatively impact landing biomechanics, the role of this musculature and injury risk is not clear. The aim of this musculoskeletal simulation study was to determine the effect of hip abductor fatigue-induced weakness on ACL loading, force production of lower extremity muscles, and lower extremity biomechanics during single-leg landing.MethodsBiomechanical data from ten healthy adults were collected before and after a fatigue protocol and used to derive subject-specific estimates of muscle forces and ACL loading using a 5-degree of freedom (DOF) model.ResultsThere were no significant differences in knee joint angles and ACL loading between pre and post-fatigue. However, there were significant differences, due to fatigue, in lateral trunk flexion angle, total excursion of trunk, muscle forces, and joint moments.ConclusionAltered landing mechanics, due to hip abductor fatigue-induced weakness, may be associated with increased risk of ACL injury during single-leg landings. Clinical assessment or screening of ACL injury risk will benefit from subject-specific musculoskeletal models during dynamic movements. Future study considering the type of the fatigue protocols, cognitive loads, and various tasks is needed to further identify the effect of hip abductor weakness on lower extremity landing biomechanics.     

Biometry of the radial head: biomechanical implications in pronation and supination

The aim of this study was to perform biometry of the proximal extremity of the radius and to characterize the shape of the radial head. Knowledge of the size and shape of the radial head is necessary for the creation of a radial head prosthesis that is anatomically and biomechanically correct. Twenty-seven measurements, focused on the proximal extremity, were done on 96 radii. The shape of the radial head was determined by the difference between the maximum diameter and the minimum diameter. We considered the shape to be circular when the difference was less than 1 mm, and elliptical when the difference was greater than 1 mm. The shape of the radial head was compared with the neck/diaphysis angle. Fifty-seven percent of radial heads were elliptical and 43% were circular. When the head was elliptical the maximum diameter was 22 mm +/-2.9 and the minimum diameter was 20 mm +/-2.8 ( P<0.001). When the head was circular the maximum diameter was 21.2 mm +/-2.4 and the minimum diameter was 20.4 mm +/-2.4 ( P<0.14). The angle between the neck and the diaphysis varied with regard to the shape of the radial head. It was 166.75 degrees +/-3 for the circular heads and 168.62 degrees +/-3.2 for the elliptical heads ( P<0.01). The biomechanics of the circular shape and the elliptical shape are different, involving an adaptation of the angle between the neck and the radial diaphysis. This difference must be taken in consideration in the design of a radial head prosthesis.     

不同载荷作用下头部生物力学响应仿真分析

目的建立符合解剖结构的人颅骨三维有限元模型,研究多种载荷作用下头部生物力学响应。方法通过建立具有解剖结构的高精度头部有限元模型,颅骨采用能模拟骨折的弹塑性材料本构模型,结合已发表的正面冲击颅内压实验、动态颅骨骨折实验、头部跌落实验结果,仿真再现实验过程中头部受冲击载荷作用下的生物力学响应、颅骨骨折及头部不同速度下的跌落响应。结果前碰撞表现出冲击与对冲侧正-负颅内压分布,相近载荷下枕骨变形比前额、顶骨严重,跌落中速度越快损伤越大。结论建立精确解剖结构的头部有限元模型可以较好模拟头部在冲击、跌落等载荷下的生物力学响应。通过量化接触力、颅内压力等参数来评价头部损伤风险,为防护系统的设计提供科学依据。     

The Global Impact of Sutures Assessed in a Finite Element Model of a Macaque Cranium

The biomechanical significance of cranial sutures in primates is an open question because their global impact is unclear, and their material properties are difficult to measure. In this study, eight suture‐bone functional units representing eight facial sutures were created in a finite element model of a monkey cranium. All the sutures were assumed to have identical isotropic linear elastic material behavior that varied in different modeling experiments, representing either fused or unfused sutures. The values of elastic moduli employed in these trials ranged over several orders of magnitude. Each model was evaluated under incisor, premolar, and molar biting conditions. Results demonstrate that skulls with unfused sutures permitted more deformations and experienced higher total strain energy. However, strain patterns remained relatively unaffected away from the suture sites, and bite reaction force was likewise barely affected. These findings suggest that suture elasticity does not substantially alter load paths through the macaque skull or its underlying rigid body kinematics. An implication is that, for the purposes of finite element analysis, omitting or fusing sutures is a reasonable modeling approximation for skulls with small suture volume fraction if the research objective is to observe general patterns of craniofacial biomechanics under static loading conditions. The manner in which suture morphology and ossification affect the mechanical integrity of skulls and their ontogeny and evolution awaits further investigation, and their viscoelastic properties call for dynamic simulations. Anat Rec 293:1477–1491, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

股骨头松质骨的三维结构及其力学意义

用扫描电镜对１２个正常股骨头的松质骨结构进行了观察，发现股骨头松质骨是一种由大量较细的拱形骨柱和较宽大的骨板相互结构构成的多孔结构，在最表层部位，许多不同方向排列的拱形骨柱支撑软骨下骨，骨柱和骨板中的矿柱排列基本相似，在骨板表面可见血管滋养孔，而骨柱表面则未见到，股骨头松质骨的特殊三维结构使其具有良好的承载功能和顺应性。     

Mechanical Performance of Cranial Bone in Impact Protection of Woodpecker Brain:A Finite Element Study

Human head impact injuries caused by a sudden impact force are very common in aviation lifesaving,car crash accident,war or sports activities. Yet,an intriguing example of nature is woodpecker which is free from head injury even it drums trunk continually at a speed of about 6-7 m/s and a deceleration of about 1000 g.Woodpecker must have special characteristics to attenuate repetitive impact force to sustain rapid pecking without brain injury. In this study,the effect of mechanical property of cranial bone on the brain during impact was investigated using the finite element(FE)approach. It was demonstrated that the pressure,Von-Mises stresses and shear stress at the same point on the posterior of woodpecker's brain were decreased greatly compared with hoopoe and lark. It was stated that the higher strength of woodpecker's cranial bone might play an important role for preventing woodpecker's head injury.     

人体对冲击加速度耐受限度研究进展

冲击性加速度是人体在航空航天过程中遇到的动力因素之一,当冲击加速度超过人的耐受限度时会导致飞行员或宇航员的损伤,甚至威胁其生命安全。因此,在飞行器设计中应充分考虑人体对冲击性加速度的耐受限度,采取有效防护措施,确保乘员的身体健康和生命安全。人体对冲击加速度耐受限度的研究已经成为现代生物力学研究的焦点,本文综述该领域的研究进展。     

膝关节生理解剖环境对膝关节生物力学特性的影响

背景：了解膝关节的生物力学特点对理解人工膝关节假体的设计原理和手术操作原则是至关重要的。 目的：分析膝关节周围的力学环境及与膝关节生物力学的关系,进一步探索膝关节的稳定性及损伤机制。 方法：应用计算机检索CNKI和PubMed数据库中1998-01/2011-08关于膝关节生物力学方面的文章,在标题和摘要中以“膝关节,韧带,半月板,关节软骨,生物力学”或“knee joints,ligament,meniscus,cartilage,biomechanical”为检索词进行检索。选择文章内容与膝关节生物力学有关者,同一领域文献则选择近期发表或发表在权威杂志文章。初检得到163篇文献,根据纳入标准选择关于膝关节损伤生物力学特性方面的25篇文献进行综述。 结果与结论：膝关节的稳定除了依赖膝关节骨以外,还以依赖前后交叉韧带的制约、内外副韧带的平衡、以及伸膝装置与股四头肌及腘绳肌的力量均衡,尤其是内外侧副韧带的平衡和稳定作用。说明膝关节的解剖环境决定了膝关节在负荷、运动及稳定等生物力学特性上的复杂性,因此,了解膝关节生理结构和解剖特点有利于掌握膝关节的生物力学特点,因此此方面的研究对膝关节疼痛、损伤及组织工程研究至关重要。