McConnell's sign: Echocardiography in the management of acute pulmonary embolism

Management of acute pulmonary embolism depends immensely on rapid diagnosis and early intervention. Transthoracic echocardiography has gained favorability in scenarios where diagnostic computed tomography angiography is not feasible. McConnell''s sign, an echocardiographic finding of segmental right ventricular wall‐motion abnormality with apical sparing, is highly specific and may guide therapeutic intervention. We present the case of a 59‐year‐old man who was found to have acute pulmonary embolism with obstructive shock, managed successfully with thrombolytic therapy after identification of McConnell''s sign. We review current literature and develop a framework for the integration of echocardiography into the multimodal approach to management.     

Emergency department focused bedside echocardiography in massive pulmonary embolism

Background

Massive pulmonary embolism (PE) is a common consideration in unstable patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with chest pain, dyspnea, or cardiac arrest. It is a potentially lethal condition necessitating prompt recognition and aggressive management. Conventional diagnostic modalities in the ED, including chest computed tomography angiography and ventilation-perfusion scanning, require the unstable patient to leave the department, and raise concerns over renal injury. Several case reports document findings of massive PE on echocardiography performed in the ED; however, none was performed, interpreted, and acted upon in the form of thrombolytic therapy by an emergency physician without the additional benefit of a cardiologist’s interpretation or a confirmatory imaging study.

Objective

We present a case that illustrates the utility of ED focused bedside echocardiography in suspected massive PE and briefly review direct and indirect ultrasound findings of acute PE.

Case Report

A case of massive PE in a 61-year-old woman is reported. In this patient with marked dyspnea, progressive hemodynamic instability, and contraindications to definitive imaging, ED focused bedside echocardiography provided valuable information that strongly suggested the diagnosis and led to alteplase administration. To our knowledge, this case represents the first report of thrombolytic therapy administration for acute massive PE based solely on clinical presentation and an emergency physician-performed bedside echocardiogram.

Conclusion

In the hands of an experienced emergency physician ultrasonographer, ED focused bedside echocardiography provides a safe, rapid, and non-invasive diagnostic adjunct for evaluation of the patient suspected of having massive PE.     

多普勒超声心动图对急性肺动脉栓塞的诊断特点及分析

目的应用多普勒超声心动图分析无心肺基础病变急性肺动脉栓塞(PE)患者肺动脉血流频谱特点及对PE的诊断价值.方法应用多普勒超声心动图检测无心肺基础病变的急性PE患者肺动脉血流频谱曲线,与肺动脉造影、肺核素扫描及血气分析对照.结果多普勒超声检测17例发病2h至11d[平均(5.1±7.7)d]PE患者肺动脉血流频谱曲线,14例频谱曲线形态呈现双峰,表现高阻力低灌注的特点.计算收缩早期峰时明显小于收缩中晚期峰时,其比值平均0.56±0.16.收缩中晚期血流速度明显减低[(37.5±10.9)cm/svs(70.4±23.8)cm/s],早期峰时速度与收缩晚期速度比值1.67±0.26.早期血流加速时间(AT)及血流减速时间(DT)明显缩短[分别为(40.8±9.7)ms,(57.3±12.3)ms].15例检出三尖瓣反流,反流压差＞30mmHg[(58.1±18.7)mmHg],3例发现右心系统血栓的直接证据.出现肺动脉血流高阻力低灌注特征的14例PE患者经肺动脉造影和(或)肺通气灌注扫描证实为肺动脉主干或主支中至大块血栓栓塞.17例PE患者均出现急性肺源性心脏病表现.结论多普勒超声心动图检测中至大块急性PE肺动脉血流频谱曲线,呈现高阻力低灌注的双峰特征,对快速早期提示急性PE具有重要的临床应用价值.     

超声心动图诊断急性肺栓塞的临床意义

目的探讨经胸彩色多普勒超声心动图诊断急性肺栓塞的价值。方法对63例临床诊断为急性肺栓塞的患者行经胸超声心动图检查,与CT各参数比较;并将肺动脉高压患者分为3组,进行组间分析。结果超声心动图发现右房内血栓1例,主肺动脉干或左右肺动脉血栓3例,右心腔增大38例,肺动脉增宽33例,右室壁运动异常19例,肺动脉高压45例,肺动脉血流流速曲线异常19例。CT发现右房内血栓及肺动脉内血栓7例,右心系统形态改变及肺动脉高压例数均低于超声心动图。3组肺动脉高压患者随肺动脉收缩压(SPAP)升高,右室舒张末期内径(RVDD)与主肺动脉内径明显增大(P<0.05)。结论超声心动图简便易行,对急性肺动脉栓塞的诊断有非常重要的价值。     

超声心动图对肺栓塞诊断价值的研究

目的　探讨经胸超声心动图 (TTE)和经食管超声心动图 (TEE)对肺栓塞的诊断价值。方法　对10例临床疑诊肺栓塞患者进行了TTE和TEE检查 ,并与CT结果对照 ,其中 4例患者进行了治疗后TEE随访。结果　 10例患者右心房内径 (5 7± 9)mm ,右心室内径 (3 4± 5 )mm ,肺动脉收缩压 (91± 19)mmHg(1mmHg=0 .13 3kPa) ,所有患者均有中度 -重度三尖瓣反流。检出右肺动脉内活动性血栓 2例 ,附壁血栓 2例 ,右心室活动性血栓 2例 ,左肺动脉活动性血栓 3例 ,附壁血栓 1例。 10例患者中 4例为左肺动脉或右肺动脉远段血栓 ,由TEE检出。所有结果经CT或手术证实。溶栓加抗凝治疗 3例 ,手术治疗 1例 ,2 0d～ 3个月后随访TEE ,肺动脉内血栓明显缩小或消失 ,肺动脉压力下降。结论　超声心动图技术在检出右心系统和肺动脉内血栓、明确肺栓塞的临床类型、评价肺栓塞的血流动力学改变和随访治疗效果等方面具有重要价值 ;TEE是检出左右肺动脉远段血栓的可靠方法     

超声心动图前列腺素E1试验诊断急性肺动脉栓塞的研究

目的探讨超声心动图评价前列腺素E1（PGE1）试验在急性肺动脉栓塞（APE）诊断中的应用价值。方法采用经胸超声心动图（TTE）检查泰安市中心医院2006年7月至2008年2月疑诊APE患者,顺序选取符合肺动脉高压、三尖瓣反流、疑诊APE的患者56例,TTE观测记录静脉注射PGE,前、即刻、5min、10min、30min时点患者肺动脉收缩压（PASP）数值,以静脉注射PGE,前PASP作为基线,注射后四个时点中任何一点PASP较基线下降幅度〈5mmHg为阳性。PASP较基线下降幅度1〉5mmHg为阴性。以螺旋CT肺动脉造影和（或）核素肺灌注扫描检查为诊断标准,通过ROC曲线评价TTE PGE1试验诊断APE敏感性、特异性。结果56例疑诊APE患者中检出APE患者36例（APE组）,非PE患者20例（NPE组）。注射即刻、5min、10min、30min时,该试验诊断APE的敏感性、特异性分别为77．8％、10．0％,72．2％、30．0％,88．9％、30．0％,88．9％、60．0％。结论1TTE PGE1试验是一种安全、方便、敏感性高的筛查诊断APE的方法。应用PGE,静脉注射30min时超声心动图试验筛查APE具有一定的可行性。     

A novel ECG parameter for diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism: RS time: RS time in acute pulmonary embolism

ObjectivesPulmonary embolism (PE) is one of the leading causes of cardiovascular mortality worldwide. Electrocardiography (ECG) may provide useful information for patients with acute PE. In this study, we aimed to investigate the diagnostic value of the QRS duration and RS time in inferolateral leads in patients admitted to the emergency department, and pre-diagnosed with acute PE.MethodsWe retrospectively enrolled 136 consecutive patients, admitted to the emergency department, pre-diagnosed with the clinical suspicion of acute PE, and underwent computerized tomographic pulmonary angiography (CTPA) to confirm the PE diagnosis. The study subjects were divided into two groups according to the presence or absence of PE, and the independent predictors of PE were investigated.ResultsSixty-eight patients (50%) had PE. Patients with PE had a longer RS time. Among the ECG parameters, only RS time was an independent predictor of PE (OR: 1.397, 95% CI: 1.171–1.667; p < 0.001). The ROC curve analyses revealed that the cut-off value of RS time for predicting acute PE was 64.20 ms with a sensitivity of 85.3% and a specificity of 79.4% (AUC: 0.846, 95%CI: 0.749–0.944; p < 0.001). In the correlation analyses; the RS time was correlated with RV end-diastolic diameter (r = 0.422; p < 0.001), RV/left ventricle (LV) ratio (r = 0.622; p < 0.001), and systolic pulmonary artery pressure (SPAP) (r = 0.508; p < 0.001).ConclusionAs a novel ECG parameter, RS time could be measured for each patient. A longer RS time can be a very useful index for diagnosing acute PE as well as for estimating the RV end-diastolic diameter and SPAP.     

Transthoracic parametric Doppler for bedside diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: A pilot study

Transthoracic parametric Doppler (TPD), unlike conventional ultrasonography, measures signals originating from movements of pulmonary blood vessel walls. In this pilot study, we tested TPD in 15 patients diagnosed with pulmonary embolism on computed tomography pulmonary angiography. Results were mapped to the upper, middle, and lower thirds of the right lung. In the lower third, TPD yielded 100% specificity and positive predictive value for acute pulmonary embolism. If validated in a larger series, this rapid bedside technique might obviate the need for computed tomography in specific cases. This could be advantageous in patients who are unstable, in intensive care, or have allergies to iodinated contrast material.     

Endovascular interventions for acute pulmonary embolism

Massive pulmonary embolism (PE) is a highly lethal condition with clinical manifestations of hemodynamic instability, acute right ventricular (RV) failure, and cardiogenic shock. Submassive PE, as defined by RV failure or troponin elevation, can result in life-threatening sequelae if treatment is not initiated promptly. Current treatment paradigm in patients with massive PE mandates prompt risk stratification with aggressive therapeutic strategies. With the advent of endovascular technologies, various catheter-based thrombectomy and thrombolytic devices are available to treat patients with massive or submassive PE. In this article, a variety of endovascular treatment strategies for PE are analyzed. The authors' institutional experience with ultrasound-accelerated thrombolytic therapy as well as catheter-directed thrombolytic therapy in patients with acute massive PE during a recent 10-year period is discussed. Finally, clinical evidence on the utilization of catheter-based interventions in patients with massive and submassive PE is also analyzed.     

Transesophageal echocardiography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale: a comparison with radiological procedures

Objective: The goal of the study was to assess prospectively the value of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) for the diagnosis of massive pulmonary embolism complicated by acute cor pulmonale. Design: A prospective study conducted on 44 consecutive patients. Setting: A general intensive care unit (ICU) of a university hospital. Patients and methods: Between May 95 and October 96, 44 consecutive patients with clinically suspected acute pulmonary embolism underwent transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), completed by TEE when acute cor pulmonale was present (30 patients). The results of the echocardiographic studies were compared with radiological investigations by helical CT or contrast angiography. Results: The high sensitivity and specificity of the presence of acute cor pulmonale on TTE for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism was confirmed. Nineteen patients only underwent TEE. The sensitivity and the specificity of TEE in detecting a proximal pulmonary embolism were 84 % and 84 %, respectively. Its main limitation concerned the left pulmonary artery, in which only one thrombus was visualized by TEE whereas six were present on helical CT, and lobar pulmonary arteries which could not be visualized with TEE. Thus, the overall sensitivity of TEE for the detection of pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale was only 58 %. Conclusion: In comparison with radiological procedures, TEE had limited accuracy for detecting pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale. When the pulmonary embolism was located in the main or right pulmonary artery, TEE could clarify the diagnosis within a few minutes without further invasive diagnostic procedures. However, a negative TEE did not exclude left proximal or lobar pulmonary embolism. Received: 28 April 1997 Accepted: 28 November 1997     

超声心动图评价急性肺栓塞患者溶栓前后右心功能指标

目的 采用超声心动图测量急性肺栓塞患者溶栓前后右心功能指标以评价溶栓效果.方法 80例急性肺栓塞患者均接受溶栓治疗.溶栓前和溶栓后24 h采用超声心动图检查患者右心室前壁厚度(RVAWT)、右心室舒张末期前后径(RVED)、主肺动脉内径(PAD)、右心室舒张期横径(RVDD)、右心房舒张期横径(RADD)、三尖瓣反流压差(TRPG)及肺动脉收缩压(SPAP).结果 80例急性肺栓塞患者溶栓后RVAWT、RVED、PAD、RVDD、TRPG、SPAP分别为(4.23±1.02)mm、(26.20±3.01) mm、(26.67±2.36)mm、(36.23±4.36)mm、(31.68±2.33)mm Hg(1 mm Hg=0.133 kPa)、(37.52±3.20)mm Hg,较溶栓前的(7.56±1.22)mm、(31.78±3.26)mm、(29.44±2.20)mm、(40.20±5.01)mm、(48.98±3.80) mm Hg、(57.25±4.23)mm Hg均降低,且差异均有统计学意义(t值分别为3.01、2.78、2.35、2.75、2.98、3.55,P均<0.01或0.05);溶栓后患者RADD为(37.55±5.25)mm,与溶栓前的(38.25±4.25)mm比较差异无统计学意义(t=1.32,P=0.18).结论 超声心动图对急性肺栓塞患者溶栓前后右心功能评价有重要意义.溶栓治疗可改善急性肺栓塞患者右心功能.     

Circulatory failure in acute pulmonary embolism

Circulatory failure occurs in about 10% of patients with pulmonary embolism, resulting from a massive obstruction of the pulmonary arterial bed. Hemodynamic and respiratory features are well established; they involve precapillary pulmonary hypertension, low cardiac output state, elevated filling pressure for the right ventricle, and venous admixture. More recently, two-dimensional echocardiography permitted the visualization of pulmonary artery and right heart enlargement, reduced right ventricular ejection fraction, and tricuspid regurgitation. Evaluated by this latter means, left ventricular systolic function appeared unchanged, but diastolic function might be reduced by septal bulging.     

Platelet activation in acute pulmonary embolism

BACKGROUND: Platelet activation is implicated in thrombotic disorders, but has not been described in acute clinical pulmonary embolism (PE). Objectives: To investigate the natural history of platelet activation in PE and associated markers of inflammation, thrombosis and cardiac dysfunction. METHODS: Thirty-five consecutive patients (age 62 +/-17 years) with acute PE were prospectively enrolled and followed for 6 months. Platelet activation was assessed by flow cytometry [measuring expression of platelet P-selectin, conformational activation of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa complex (PAC-1) and formation of platelet-leukocyte complexes] and by plasma soluble P-selectin. Platelet activation, right ventricular (RV) function (assessed as RV ejection area by transthoracic echocardiography), D-dimer and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) were measured at presentation and repeated over 6 months follow-up. RESULTS: Soluble P-selectin (56 +/-19 ng mL(-1), anovaP < 0.0001) and PAC-1 (1.5 +/- 1.8%, anovaP = 0.005) were mildly but significantly increased in patients with acute PE relative to healthy young men (soluble P-selectin 33 +/- 13 ng mL(-1), P < 0.001; PAC-1 binding 0.5 +/- 0.6%, P < 0.01) and age-matched controls (soluble P-selectin 31 +/- 9 ng mL(-1), P < 0.001; PAC-1 binding 0.4 +/-0.4%, P < 0.05). Platelet P-selectin expression and platelet-leukocyte complexes were not increased during acute PE. Echocardiographic RV ejection area correlated inversely with soluble P-selectin (r = -0.47, P = 0.007) and positively with platelet P-selectin (r = 0.49, P = 0.0007), suggesting P-selectin is shed from activated platelets in proportion to the severity of RV dysfunction. Elevated soluble P-selectin, D-dimer and hs-CRP demonstrated a time-dependent return to normal during 6 months follow-up. CONCLUSION: Platelet activation is evident after acute PE. Platelet activation correlates with the severity of RV dysfunction, and can persist for several months after acute PE.     

Syncope in acute pulmonary embolism.

BACKGROUND: Syncope is a possible but little known presenting manifestation of acute pulmonary embolism (PE). The importance of syncope at the presentation of acute PE is not known. OBJECTIVES: To report the frequency and to establish the prognostic significance of syncope at the presentation of acute PE. METHODS: A retrospective review of the records of 154 consecutive patients admitted to an Internal Medicine service with acute PE. RESULTS: Fourteen patients with acute PE (9.1%) had syncope at presentation. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics (including respiratory failure, right heart failure and arterial hypotension), and hospital mortality were similar in patients with or without syncope. CONCLUSIONS: Syncope is not an uncommonly presenting manifestation of acute PE. Patients with acute PE and syncope have similar characteristics to those without syncope. Syncope does not seem to determine a poor prognosis.     

Diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism

Advances in the management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism (PE) have improved diagnostic accuracy and made management algorithms safer, easier to use, and well standardized. These diagnostic algorithms are mainly based on the assessment of clinical pretest probability, D‐dimer measurement, and imaging tests—predominantly computed tomography pulmonary angiography. These diagnostic algorithms allow safe and cost‐effective diagnosis for most patients with suspected PE. In this review, we summarize signs and symptoms of PE, current existing evidence for PE diagnosis, and focus on the challenge of diagnosing PE in special patient populations, such as pregnant women, or patients with a prior VTE. We also discuss novel imaging tests for PE diagnosis and highlight some of the additional challenges that might require adjustments to current diagnostic strategies, such as the reduced clinical suspicion threshold, resulting in a lower proportion of PE among suspected patients as well as the overdiagnosis of subsegmental PE.     

超声心动图评价急性肺栓塞患者左心室舒张功能的临床应用

【摘要】目的 评价超声心动图评价急性肺栓塞（APE）患者左心室舒张功能的临床应用价值。方法 选择我院2016年3月~2019年3月确诊的肺动脉栓塞患者87例,入院时均行急诊超声心动图检查,根据左室舒张功能分为舒张功能正常、舒张功能减低I级、舒张功能降低II级和舒张功能降低III级4组。比较各组间右心室大小、肺动脉高压程度。所有患者均行溶栓治疗,比较各组溶栓前、后左室舒张功能与肺动脉高压变化,采用两变量Pearson 分析左室舒张功能指标与肺动脉高压的相关性,找出左室舒张功能指标中与肺动脉高压关系最密切的指标。结果 入院时各组左心室舒张功能指标E/A、e’、E/e’,左心室舒张功能容积指标VER、VAR、VER／VAR、VA、VE、VE／VA差异均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。减低Ⅱ级组、减低Ⅲ级组出院前E/A明显低于入院时,减低Ⅰ级组、减低Ⅱ级组、减低Ⅲ级组出院前E/e’明显低于入院时,VER／VAR、VE／VA明显高于入院时,差异均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。减低Ⅰ级组入院时、出院前E/A差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05)。出院前各组PASP均明显低于入院时,差异均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。入院时PASP与E/A呈正性弱相关（r=0.293,P=0.031）;与VER／VAR、VE／VA呈负性低度相关（r=-0.450, -0.471,P=0.011,0.013）;与E/e’呈中度正相关（r=0.572,P=0.011）;出院前PASP与E/A呈正性弱相关（r=0.107,P=0.039）;与VER／VAR、VE／VA呈负性弱相关（r= -0.229, -0.235, P=0.037,0.036）;与E/e’呈正性低度相关（r=0.362,0.030）。结论 E/e’、VER／VAR、VE／VA评价APE患者溶栓前后左心室舒张功能较传统的E/A更敏感,临床价值更高。     

急性肺栓塞的护理

肺栓塞是指嵌塞物质进入肺动脉及其分支，阻断组织血液供应所引起的病理和临床状态。既往无心肺疾病的患者，呼吸困难是肺栓塞最常见的症状（发生率80％左右），呼吸急促，呼吸频率〉20／min是最常见的体征，尤以活动时最明显。通常，呼吸困难、晕厥或发绀预示有致命性危险。肺栓塞后可导致肺梗死、急性肺原性心脏病。发病率高，