A Nutritional-Toxicological Assessment of Antarctic Krill Oil versus Fish Oil Dietary Supplements

Fish oil dietary supplements and complementary medicines are pitched to play a role of increasing strategic importance in meeting daily requirements of essential nutrients, such as long-chain (≥C₂₀, LC) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin D. Recently a new product category, derived from Antarctic krill, has been launched on the omega-3 nutriceutical market. Antarctic krill oil is marketed as demonstrating a greater ease of absorption due to higher phospholipid content, as being sourced through sustainable fisheries and being free of toxins and pollutants; however, limited data is available on the latter component. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) encompass a range of toxic, man-made contaminants that accumulate preferentially in marine ecosystems and in the lipid reserves of organisms. Extraction and concentration of fish oils therefore represents an inherent nutritional-toxicological conflict. This study aimed to provide the first quantitative comparison of the nutritional (EPA and DHA) versus the toxicological profiles of Antarctic krill oil products, relative to various fish oil categories available on the Australian market. Krill oil products were found to adhere closely to EPA and DHA manufacturer specifications and overall were ranked as containing intermediate levels of POP contaminants when compared to the other products analysed. Monitoring of the pollutant content of fish and krill oil products will become increasingly important with expanding regulatory specifications for chemical thresholds.     

Krill Oil Supplementation Reduces Exacerbated Hepatic Steatosis Induced by Thermoneutral Housing in Mice with Diet-Induced Obesity

Preclinical evidence suggests that n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA (Omega-3) supplemented as phospholipids (PLs) may be more effective than triacylglycerols (TAGs) in reducing hepatic steatosis. To further test the ability of Omega-3 PLs to alleviate liver steatosis, we used a model of exacerbated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease based on high-fat feeding at thermoneutral temperature. Male C57BL/6N mice were fed for 24 weeks a lard-based diet given either alone (LHF) or supplemented with Omega-3 (30 mg/g diet) as PLs (krill oil; ω3PL) or TAGs (Epax 3000TG concentrate; ω3TG), which had a similar total content of EPA and DHA and their ratio. Substantial levels of TAG accumulation (~250 mg/g) but relatively low inflammation/fibrosis levels were achieved in the livers of control LHF mice. Liver steatosis was reduced by >40% in the ω3PL but not ω3TG group, and plasma ALT levels were markedly reduced (by 68%) in ω3PL mice as well. Krill oil administration also improved hepatic insulin sensitivity, and its effects were associated with high plasma adiponectin levels (150% of LHF mice) along with superior bioavailability of EPA, increased content of alkaloids stachydrine and trigonelline, suppression of lipogenic gene expression, and decreased diacylglycerol levels in the liver. This study reveals that in addition to Omega-3 PLs, other constituents of krill oil, such as alkaloids, may contribute to its strong antisteatotic effects in the liver.     

Evaluation of the composition of omega-3 fatty acids in dietary oil supplements

Aim: The aim of the present study was to determine the fatty acid composition of 19 dietary oil supplements that are commercially available in Australia, comparing findings with manufacturers' reported omega-3 fatty acid content. Methods: Fifteen fish oil supplements and four non-fish oil supplements were obtained from Australian retail stores. Fatty acids were derivatised, and fatty acid methyl esters were quantitated using classical GC-flame ionisation detection methods. Composition of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid reported by supplement manufacturers was compared with experimental values using the Bland-Altman plot. Results: The combined eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid content in the fish oil and non-fish oil supplements was 17.63–71.45% and 0.00–0.05% respectively. A high level of congruency was observed for the composition of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid reported by manufacturers and determined experimentally (mean difference, eicosapentaenoic acid, 13.2 mg; docosahexaenoic acid, 12.8 mg). Conclusion: Current practice in pre-market assessment of complementary medicines in Australia is satisfactory for supplements examined in the present study. Intake of these fish oil supplements can be used to provide high levels of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids that would be otherwise difficult to achieve through normal dietary intake alone.     

Krill Oil Inhibits NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in the Prevention of the Pathological Injuries of Diabetic Cardiomyopathy

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), resulting in high mortality. Myocardial fibrosis, cardiomyocyte apoptosis and inflammatory cell infiltration are hallmarks of DCM, leading to cardiac dysfunction. To date, few effective approaches have been developed for the intervention of DCM. In the present study, we investigate the effect of krill oil (KO) on the prevention of DCM using a mouse model of DM induced by streptozotocin and a high-fat diet. The diabetic mice developed pathological features, including cardiac fibrosis, apoptosis and inflammatory cell infiltration, the effects of which were remarkably prevented by KO. Mechanistically, KO reversed the DM-induced cardiac expression of profibrotic and proinflammatory genes and attenuated DM-enhanced cardiac oxidative stress. Notably, KO exhibited a potent inhibitory effect on NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome that plays an important role in DCM. Further investigation showed that KO significantly upregulated the expression of Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), which are negative regulators of NLRP3. The present study reports for the first time the preventive effect of KO on the pathological injuries of DCM, providing SIRT3, PGC-1α and NLRP3 as molecular targets of KO. This work suggests that KO supplementation may be a viable approach in clinical prevention of DCM.     

Milk Fatty Acid Profiles in Different Animal Species: Focus on the Potential Effect of Selected PUFAs on Metabolism and Brain Functions

Milk contains several important nutrients that are beneficial for human health. This review considers the nutritional qualities of essential fatty acids (FAs), especially omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) present in milk from ruminant and non-ruminant species. In particular, the impact of milk fatty acids on metabolism is discussed, including its effects on the central nervous system. In addition, we presented data indicating how animal feeding—the main way to modify milk fat composition—may have a potential impact on human health, and how rearing and feeding systems strongly affect milk quality within the same animal species. Finally, we have presented the results of in vivo studies aimed at supporting the beneficial effects of milk FA intake in animal models, and the factors limiting their transferability to humans were discussed.     

Types and amount of dietary fat and colon cancer risk: Prevention by omega-3 fatty acid-rich diets

Colorectal cancer is the second most common malignancy in the Western world including the United Sates. In recent years there is a strong upward trend in colon cancer risk in Japan mainly due to Americanization of Japanese food habits. Several epidemiological studies point to a strong association between nutrient composition of the diet and cancer of the colon. The role of types of dietary fat, especially saturated fats of animal origin, n−6- and n−3-rich polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the etiology of colorectal cancer has become increasingly apparent. Epidemiological studies indicate a positive association between the dietary intake of saturated fat and/or animal fat and colon cancer risk and an inverse relationship between the intake of fish and fish oil rich in n−3 PUFAs and colon cancer development. Although the evidence from case-control studies and international correlational studies is not totally consistent, these inconsistencies may have arisen, at least in part, from methodological limitations. Animal, model studies have unequivocally provided evidence that the colon tumor-promoting effect of dietary fat depends on its fatty acid composition and that high dietary n−3 PUFAs lacks colon tumor-promoting effect, as compared to diets high in n−6 PUFAs or saturated fats. Diets rich in n−3 PUFAs inhibit colon carcinogenesis through the modulation of colonicras-p21, cyclooxygenase-2, and inducible nitric oxide synthase activities and apoptosis. Gene expression analysis using DNA microarrays indicates that n−3 fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid activates cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors such as p21, p27, p57 and p19 and inactivates antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family of genes, and prostagland in family of genes. These results suggest that decreasing the intake of n−6 PUFAs and saturated fats and increasing that of n−3 PUFAs, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid has the potential to be a major component of colon cancer control.     

Impact of Fatty Acid Supplementation on Cognitive Performance among United States (US) Military Officers: The Ranger Resilience and Improved Performance on Phospholipid-Bound Omega-3’s (RRIPP-3) Study

Studies have assessed omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive decline among older adults and cognitive development among children, although less is known about cognitive or neurological effects among young adults. We examined whether omega-3 supplementation from krill oil could improve cognition and resilience among young military officers compared to a control. This double-blind, placebo-controlled trial enrolled 555 officers (mean age 23.4 ± 2.8, 98.6% male) entering the United States (US) Army Infantry Basic Officer Leaders Course (IBOLC) with the intention to complete the US Ranger Course. Volunteer participants consumed eight dietary supplements daily of krill oil containing 2.3 g omega-3 or control (macadamia nut oil) over an approximate 20-week period. Cognitive functioning, resilience, and mood were assessed during a well-rested period at approximately 14 weeks and after a battlefield simulation at 16 weeks. Blood spot samples were collected to monitor compliance and dietary intake was assessed. All hypotheses were tested using both ‘Intention to Treat’ (ITT) and ‘As Per Protocol’ (APP) approaches. Of the 555 randomized individuals, 245 (44.1%) completed the study. No statistically significant group-by-time interactions indicating treatment effect were found on any outcomes. Poor compliance was indicated by lower than expected omega-3 elevations in the treatment group, and may have contributed to a failure to detect a response.     

Experimental Animal Studies Support the Role of Dietary Advanced Glycation End Products in Health and Disease

The increased incidence of obesity, diabetes mellitus, aging, and associated comorbidities indicates the interplay between genetic and environmental influences. Several dietary components have been identified to play a role in the pathogenesis of the so-called “modern diseases”, and their complications including advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which are generated during the food preparation and processing. Diet-derived advanced glycation end products (dAGEs) can be absorbed in the gastrointestinal system and contribute to the total body AGEs’ homeostasis, partially excreted in the urine, while a significant amount accumulates to various tissues. Various in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies support that dAGEs play an important role in health and disease, in a similar way to those endogenously formed. Animal studies using wild type, as well as experimental, animal models have shown that dAGEs contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of various diseases and their complications, and are involved in the changes related to the aging process. In addition, they support that dAGEs’ restriction reduces insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation; restores immune alterations; and prevents or delays the progression of aging, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and their complications. These data can be extrapolated in humans and strongly support that dAGEs’ restriction should be considered as an alternative therapeutic intervention.     

The Complex of Phycobiliproteins,Fucoxanthin, and Krill Oil Ameliorates Obesity through Modulation of Lipid Metabolism and Antioxidants in Obese Rats

Phycobiliproteins, fucoxanthin, and krill oil are natural marine products with excellent activities. In the study, we prepared the complex of phycobiliproteins, fucoxanthin, and krill oil (PFK) and assessed the anti-obesity, lipid-lowering, and antioxidant activities in high-fat diet rats. The results showed that the rats significantly and safely reduced body weight gain and regulated serum biochemical parameters at 50 mg/kg phycobiliproteins, 10 mg/kg fucoxanthin, and 100 mg/kg krill oil. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism study suggested that the complex of PFK confined the enzyme activities of lipid synthesis and enhanced antioxidant activity to improve obesity indirectly. The conclusions demonstrated that the complex of PFK has potent anti-obesity and hypolipidemic effects which have potential use as a natural and healthy food and medicine for anti-obesity and lowering blood lipids in the future.     

Omega-7 Mixed Fatty Acid Supplementation Fails to Reduce Serum Inflammatory Biomarkers: A Placebo-Controlled,Double-Blind Randomized Crossover Trial

We report the effects of mixed omega-7 fatty acid supplementation on changes in serum hsCRP, TNFα, and IL-6 levels and self-reported outcomes in people with non-specific chronic musculoskeletal discomfort. Design: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, 1:1 randomized single crossover trial composed of 688 mg/day palmiteolate for the verum and an equivalent amount of medium-chain triglycerides for the placebo. Method: Data were analyzed in two independent groups and as a crossover group. Results: From 211 screened participants in 2017–2019, 56 were randomized. Six participants dropped out and fifty completers contributed to the statistical analyses. At baseline, none of the investigated biomarkers were significantly correlated to subjectively assessed musculoskeletal discomfort levels. For the two-group analysis (n = 26 and n = 24), none of the serum biomarkers reached statistical significance; however, a statistically significant placebo effect was found in the subjective outcomes. Conclusion: For the crossover analysis (n = 50), three weeks of supplementation with n7FA containing 688 mg per day of palmiteolate did not reduce serum inflammatory biomarkers nor did it improve subjectively measured quality of life (QoL) compared to placebo. Future studies should explore appropriate biomarkers, sufficient power, length of dosing, inclusion criteria for volunteers with higher BMI, and the verification of cis-palmiteolate versus trans-palmiteolate.     

Consumption of Omega-3 and Maintenance and Incidence of Depressive Episodes: The ELSA-Brasil Study

Depression affects 264 million persons in the world, accounting for some 4.3% of the global burden of disease. Current studies indicate that the decrease in the consumption of omega-3 food sources is associated with the increasing incidence of depression. The study aims to assess the association between the consumption of omega-3 and the maintenance and incidence of depressive episodes in adults (39–64 years) and elderly adults (>65 years). This was a longitudinal study using data from the baseline and first follow-up wave of the Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil). Depressive episodes were obtained with the Clinical Interview Schedule Revised (CIS-R), and food consumption was measured with the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Logistic regression was used to analyze associations between the consumption of omega-3 and depressive episodes. Fatty acids from the omega-3 family showed a protective effect against the maintenance of depressive episodes. In relation to incidence, the estimates suggest that the higher the consumption of omega-3 acids, the lower the risk of developing depressive episodes, and significant associations were found between the consumption of omega-3 and alpha-linolenic acid. Dietary consumption of omega-3, DHA, EPA, DPA, and alpha linolenic fatty acids may have a protective effect against the maintenance and incidence of depressive episodes.     

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): an ancient nutrient for the modern human brain

Modern humans have evolved with a staple source of preformed docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the diet. An important turning point in human evolution was the discovery of high-quality, easily digested nutrients from coastal seafood and inland freshwater sources. Multi-generational exploitation of seafood by shore-based dwellers coincided with the rapid expansion of grey matter in the cerebral cortex, which characterizes the modern human brain. The DHA molecule has unique structural properties that appear to provide optimal conditions for a wide range of cell membrane functions. This has particular implications for grey matter, which is membrane-rich tissue. An important metabolic role for DHA has recently been identified as the precursor for resolvins and protectins. The rudimentary source of DHA is marine algae; therefore it is found concentrated in fish and marine oils. Unlike the photosynthetic cells in algae and higher plants, mammalian cells lack the specific enzymes required for the de novo synthesis of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the precursor for all omega-3 fatty acid syntheses. Endogenous synthesis of DHA from ALA in humans is much lower and more limited than previously assumed. The excessive consumption of omega-6 fatty acids in the modern Western diet further displaces DHA from membrane phospholipids. An emerging body of research is exploring a unique role for DHA in neurodevelopment and the prevention of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. DHA is increasingly being added back into the food supply as fish oil or algal oil supplementation.     

The Nutrition Transition: An Overview of World Patterns of Change

This paper examines the speed of change in diet, activity, and obesity in the developing world, and notes potential exacerbating biological relationships that contribute to differences in the rates of change. The focus is on lower- and middle-income countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. These dietary, physical activity, and body composition changes are occurring at great speed and at earlier stages of these countries' economic and social development. There are some unique issues that relate to body composition and potential genetic factors that are also explored, including potential differences in body mass index (BMI)—disease relationships and added risks posed by high levels of poor fetal and infant growth patterns. In addition there is an important dynamic occurring—the shift in the burden of poor diets, inactivity and obesity from the rich to the poor. The developing world needs to give far greater emphasis to addressing the prevention of the adverse health consequences of this shift to the nutrition transition stage of the degenerative diseases     

Dietary Interventions with or without Omega-3 Supplementation for the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune condition characterized by symptoms of inflammation and pain in the joints. RA is estimated to have a worldwide prevalence of 0.5–1%, with a predominance in females. Diet may play an important role in the symptoms of RA; however, little is known about the effects of various diets. The aim of this systematic review is to explore the effect of dietary interventions, with or without omega-3 supplementation for the management of RA. The electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Library were systematically searched for clinical trials investigating dietary interventions, with or without omega-3 supplementation to retrieve papers from inception to April 2021. Randomized and non-randomized controlled trials of dietary interventions in adults with RA were eligible for inclusion. Twenty studies with a total of 1063 participants were included. The most frequently reported outcomes were pain, duration of morning stiffness, joint tenderness, grip strength and inflammatory markers. Dietary interventions with an anti-inflammatory basis may be an effective way for adults with RA seeking complementary treatments, potentially leading to improvements in certain parameters. However, there is a need for longer duration studies that are well-designed and sufficiently powered to investigate the influence of diet on RA.     

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Consumption and Prostate Cancer: A Review of Exposure Measures and Results of Epidemiological Studies

Animal studies have shown that dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3) may play a role in the development of prostate cancer, but the results of epidemiologic studies have been equivocal. Associations in humans may vary depending on study design, measurement methodology of fatty acid intake, intake ranges, and stage of cancer development. To address this, we identified 36 published studies through PubMed (Medline) from 1993 through 2013 on long-chain n-3s and prostate cancer. Exposure measurements included dietary assessment and biomarker levels. Associations for total, early, and late stage prostate cancer were examined by subgroup of study design and exposure measure type and by using forest plots to illustrate the relative strength of associations within each subgroup. We also tested for potential threshold effects by considering studies that included measurement cut-points that met intake levels recommended by the American Heart Association. We found no consistent evidence supporting a role of n-3s in either the causation or prevention of prostate cancer at any stage or grade. Results did not vary appreciably by study design, exposure measurement, intake level, or stage of cancer development.     

Vitamin D and Cancer: An Historical Overview of the Epidemiology and Mechanisms

This is a narrative review of the evidence supporting vitamin D’s anticancer actions. The first section reviews the findings from ecological studies of cancer with respect to indices of solar radiation, which found a reduced risk of incidence and mortality for approximately 23 types of cancer. Meta-analyses of observational studies reported the inverse correlations of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] with the incidence of 12 types of cancer. Case-control studies with a 25(OH)D concentration measured near the time of cancer diagnosis are stronger than nested case-control and cohort studies as long follow-up times reduce the correlations due to changes in 25(OH)D with time. There is no evidence that undiagnosed cancer reduces 25(OH)D concentrations unless the cancer is at a very advanced stage. Meta-analyses of cancer incidence with respect to dietary intake have had limited success due to the low amount of vitamin D in most diets. An analysis of 25(OH)D-cancer incidence rates suggests that achieving 80 ng/mL vs. 10 ng/mL would reduce cancer incidence rates by 70 ± 10%. Clinical trials have provided limited support for the UVB-vitamin D-cancer hypothesis due to poor design and execution. In recent decades, many experimental studies in cultured cells and animal models have described a wide range of anticancer effects of vitamin D compounds. This paper will review studies showing the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, dedifferentiation, and invasion together with the sensitization to proapoptotic agents. Moreover, 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ and other vitamin D receptor agonists modulate the biology of several types of stromal cells such as fibroblasts, endothelial and immune cells in a way that interferes the apparition of metastases. In sum, the available mechanistic data support the global protective action of vitamin D against several important types of cancer.     

Cod Liver Oil Supplement Consumption and Health: Cross-sectional Results from the EPIC-Norfolk Cohort Study

Supplement users (SU) make healthy lifestyle choices; on the other hand, SU report more medical conditions. We hypothesised that cod liver oil (CLO) consumers are similar to non-supplement users, since CLO use might originate from historical motives, i.e., rickets prevention, and not health consciousness. CLO consumers were studied in order to identify possible confounders, such as confounding by indication. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC) investigates causes of chronic disease. The participants were 25,639 men and women, aged 40–79 years, recruited from general practices in Norfolk, East-Anglia (UK). Participants completed questionnaires and a health examination between 1993 and 1998. Supplement use was measured using 7-day diet diaries. CLO was the most common supplement used, more prevalent among women and associated with not smoking, higher physical activity level and more favourable eating habits. SU had a higher occurrence of benign growths and bone-related diseases, but CLO was negatively associated with cardiovascular-related conditions. Although the results of SU characteristics in EPIC-Norfolk are comparable with studies worldwide, the CLO group is different from SU in general. Confounding by indication takes place and will need to be taken into account when analysing prospective associations of CLO use with fracture risk and cardiovascular diseases.     

Beneficial Outcomes of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Human Health: An Update for 2021

Oxidative stress and inflammation have been recognized as important contributors to the risk of chronic non-communicable diseases. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may regulate the antioxidant signaling pathway and modulate inflammatory processes. They also influence hepatic lipid metabolism and physiological responses of other organs, including the heart. Longitudinal prospective cohort studies demonstrate that there is an association between moderate intake of the omega-6 PUFA linoleic acid and lower risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), most likely as a result of lower blood cholesterol concentration. Current evidence suggests that increasing intake of arachidonic acid (up to 1500 mg/day) has no adverse effect on platelet aggregation and blood clotting, immune function and markers of inflammation, but may benefit muscle and cognitive performance. Many studies show that higher intakes of omega-3 PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are associated with a lower incidence of chronic diseases characterized by elevated inflammation, including CVDs. This is because of the multiple molecular and cellular actions of EPA and DHA. Intervention trials using EPA + DHA indicate benefit on CVD mortality and a significant inverse linear dose–response relationship has been found between EPA + DHA intake and CVD outcomes. In addition to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory roles, omega-3 fatty acids are considered to regulate platelet homeostasis and lower risk of thrombosis, which together indicate their potential use in COVID-19 therapy.     

Serum lipid profile and fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phospholipids in children and adolescents with primary hyperlipidemia

This study aimed at characterizing the fatty acid (FA) composition of red blood cell (RBC) phospholipids in children and adolescents with primary hyperlipidemia, and to ascertain potential association with serum lipid profile and dietary factors. At this purpose, 54 probands aged 6–17 years were recruited. Subjects showed a low omega-3 index (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA?+?docosahexaenoic acid, DHA <4%). Compared to males, females had a trend toward lower levels of total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and MUFA/saturated fatty acids (SFAs) ratio in RBCs. An inverse relationship between MUFA concentration in RBCs and serum cholesterol or HDL-C/triglycerides ratio was found. Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFA) were positively associated to serum HDL-C levels, and inversely to dietary cholesterol. Fiber intake was positively associated with MUFA/SFA ratio. In conclusion, we provide the first experimental data on phospholipid FA composition of RBCs in hyperlipidemic children, showing sex differences and an overall low omega 3-index.     

Recent Advances in Omega-3: Health Benefits,Sources, Products and Bioavailability

The joint symposium of The Omega-3 Centre and the Australasian Section American Oil Chemists Society; Recent Advances in Omega-3: Health Benefits, Sources, Products and Bioavailability, was held November 7, 2013 in Newcastle, NSW, Australia. Over 115 attendees received new information on a range of health benefits, aquaculture as a sustainable source of supply, and current and potential new and novel sources of these essential omega-3 long-chain (LC, ≥C₂₀) polyunsaturated fatty acid nutrients (also termed LC omega-3). The theme of “Food versus Fuel” was an inspired way to present a vast array of emerging and ground breaking Omega-3 research that has application across many disciplines. Eleven papers submitted following from the Omega-3 Symposium are published in this Special Issue volume, with topics covered including: an update on the use of the Omega-3 Index (O3I), the effects of dosage and concurrent intake of vitamins/minerals on omega-3 incorporation into red blood cells, the possible use of the O3I as a measure of risk for adiposity, the need for and progress with new land plant sources of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6ω3), the current status of farmed Australian and New Zealand fish, and also supplements, in terms of their LC omega-3 and persistent organic pollutants (POP) content, progress with cheap carbon sources in the culture of DHA-producing single cell organisms, a detailed examination of the lipids of the New Zealand Greenshell mussel, and a pilot investigation of the purification of New Zealand hoki liver oil by short path distillation. The selection of papers in this Special Issue collectively highlights a range of forward looking and also new and including positive scientific outcomes occurring in the omega-3 field.