Essential Elements for a Pharmacy Practice Mentoring Program

Formal guidelines for mentoring faculty members in pharmacy practice divisions of colleges and schools of pharmacy do not exist in the literature. This paper addresses the background literature on mentoring programs, explores the current state of mentoring programs used in pharmacy practice departments, and provides guidelines for colleges and schools instituting formal mentoring programs. As the number of pharmacy colleges and schools has grown, the demand for quality pharmacy faculty members has dramatically increased. While some faculty members gain teaching experience during postgraduate residency training, new pharmacy practice faculty members often need professional development to meet the demands of their academic responsibilities. A mentoring program can be 1 means of improving faculty success and retention. Many US colleges and schools of pharmacy have developed formal mentoring programs, whereas several others have informal processes in place. This paper discusses those programs and the literature available, and makes recommendations on the structure of mentoring programs.     

Comparison of Black Student Enrollment in US Schools and Colleges of Pharmacy,Medicine, and Dentistry

Objective. Promoting equity and diversity in health care must include increasing the population of minority health care professionals. The purpose of this study was to: evaluate changes in Black professional student enrollment in schools and colleges of pharmacy, medicine, and dentistry; determine whether significant differences exist in Black professional student enrollment among these schools; and rate schools on how well Black professional student enrollment reflects state populations and compare ratings between 2010 and 2019 (for purposes of this study, professional student refers to students enrolled in Doctor of Medicine [MD], Doctor of Pharmacy [PharmD], or Doctor of Dental Medicine [DMD]/Doctor of Dental Surgery [DDS] degree programs).Methods. Enrollment data were obtained through the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, Association of American Medical Colleges, and American Dental Association for fall 2010 through fall 2019. The average percentage of Black students enrolled and the rate of change over time was determined. Schools were rated on their percentage of Black students relative to the percentage of Black residents in their state. Kruskal-Wallis H test, Wilcoxon signed rank tests, and chi-square tests were performed to quantify differences in enrollment and college ratings.Results. Schools of pharmacy and medicine experienced a significant increase in Black student enrollment between 2010 and 2019, but schools of dentistry did not. Pharmacy and medical schools also had significantly greater Black student enrollment in 2019 compared to dentistry. The proportion of schools of pharmacy and medicine with failing ratings decreased between 2010 and 2019.Conclusion. To facilitate improved access and limit health and health care disparities, it is important that health professions schools and colleges reflect the diversity of the patient populations they serve. Serious and intentional efforts toward diversification, inclusivity, and equity are necessary to improve Black student enrollment.     

Education,Training, and Academic Experience of Newly Hired,First-Time Pharmacy Faculty Members

Objective. To describe the education, training, and academic experiences of newly hired faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy during the 2012-2013 academic year.Methods. A survey regarding education, training, and academic experiences was conducted of all first-time faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy hired during the 2012-2013 academic year.Results. Pharmacy practice faculty members accounted for the majority (68.2%) of new hires. Ambulatory care was the most common pharmacy specialty position (29.8%). Most new faculty members had a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) as their terminal degree (74.8%), and 88.3% of pharmacy practice faculty members completed a residency. Of new faculty members who responded to the survey, 102 (67.5%) had at least 3 prior academic teaching, precepting, or research experiences.Conclusion. New faculty members were hired most frequently for clinical faculty positions at the assistant professor level and most frequently in the specialty of ambulatory care. Prior academic experience included precepting pharmacy students, facilitating small discussions, and guest lecturing.     

The Evolving Role of Historically Black Pharmacy Schools in a Changing Environment

Objective. To provide a comprehensive review of the contributions of historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) to creating a diverse pharmacist workforce and identify opportunities for future contributions. This was accomplished by comparing enrollment at HBCUs to overall US enrollment of African American pharmacy students and then comparing those numbers to national enrollment of pharmacy students, analyzing contributions of HBCUs to underrepresented pharmacy student enrollment, evaluating overall changes to pharmacy school enrollment and impact on enrollment at HBCUs, and identifying areas of opportunity to enhance the future contributions of HBCUs.Findings. There are six HBCU pharmacy schools in the United States. Although HBCU pharmacy schools made up only 4% of the total number of US pharmacy schools, they accounted for an average of 22.8% of the total African American student enrollment in pharmacy schools over a five-year period (2015-2019). An average of 13.8% of the total population of underrepresented people of color (UPOC) enrolled in US pharmacy schools from 2015-2019 attended an HBCU pharmacy school.Summary. Historically Black colleges and universities have consistently made significant contributions to the total pharmacy school population of African Americans, as well as that of Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders and American Indian and Alaska Natives. These institutions have an opportunity to enhance their impact and serve in graduating the diverse pharmacy workforce needed in the future. Historically Black colleges and universities can achieve this goal by making significant efforts to recruit LatinX pharmacy students and by increasing their recruitment of African Americans, Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders, and American Indian and Alaska Natives.     

Multi-institutional study of women and underrepresented minority faculty members in academic pharmacy

Objectives. To examine trends in the numbers of women and underrepresented minority (URM) pharmacy faculty members over the last 20 years, and determine factors influencing women faculty members’ pursuit and retention of an academic pharmacy career.Methods. Twenty-year trends in women and URM pharmacy faculty representation were examined. Women faculty members from 9 public colleges and schools of pharmacy were surveyed regarding demographics, job satisfaction, and their academic pharmacy career, and relationships between demographics and satisfaction were analyzed.Results. The number of women faculty members more than doubled between 1989 and 2009 (from 20.7% to 45.5%), while the number of URM pharmacy faculty members increased only slightly over the same time period. One hundred fifteen women faculty members completed the survey instrument and indicated they were generally satisfied with their jobs. The academic rank of professor, being a nonpharmacy practice faculty member, being tenured/tenure track, and having children were associated with significantly lower satisfaction with fringe benefits. Women faculty members who were tempted to leave academia for other pharmacy sectors had significantly lower salary satisfaction and overall job satisfaction, and were more likely to indicate their expectations of academia did not match their experiences (p<0.05).Conclusions. The significant increase in the number of women pharmacy faculty members over the last 20 years may be due to the increased number of female pharmacy graduates and to women faculty members’ satisfaction with their careers. Lessons learned through this multi-institutional study and review may be applicable to initiatives to improve recruitment and retention of URM pharmacy faculty members.     

Educational programs offered by colleges of pharmacy and drug information centers within the United States

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the scope of drug information educational programs offered by formalized DICs and colleges of pharmacy to pharmacy students. Data were collected from surveys mailed October and December 1982 to 120 institutions known to be active in disseminating drug information as well as the 72 colleges of pharmacy located in the United States and Puerto Rico. A total of 109 questionnaires (91 percent response rate) were returned from the DICs, and 67 questionnaires (93 percent response rate) were returned from colleges of pharmacy. Seventy-four of the DICS and 63 colleges of pharmacy indicated that they provide required and/or elective didactic or experiential drug information training for pharmacy students. These experiences were offered predominantly to fifth year baccalaureate candidates and PharmD candidates. Thirty-two colleges reported that drug information training is a required component of baccalaureate externship-clerkship experiences although most students receive fewer than 40 hours of training. Forty-seven DICs and 20 colleges are affiliated with ASHP approved residency programs. The amount of drug information exposure each resident obtains was highly variable. This survey indicates that many of today's pharmacy students may not be receiving sufficient drug information training to respond to the drug information needs of other health professionals and the lay public.     

Integrating postgraduate pharmacy training programs into colleges of pharmacy

An important issue facing colleges of pharmacy is the integration of postgraduate clinical training programs into the mainstream of pharmacy education. Colleges of pharmacy have a major role to play in postgraduate clinical training programs to the benefit of the college, resident, and institution. Students must be provided with information about residencies during their first year, and this information must be continually reinforced throughout their academic career. Residency and fellowship programs contribute significantly to the education of pharmacy students. Colleges must take an active role, working in partnership with institutions to enhance postgraduate pharmacy training programs.     

A Blueprint for Transitioning Pharmacy Residents Into Successful Clinical Faculty Members in Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

With the increase of new pharmacy colleges and schools throughout the country, the number of open clinical academic pharmacy positions continues to grow. Considering the abundance of clinical faculty positions available nationwide and the increased likelihood of current pharmacy residents transitioning from residency directly into academia, pharmacy residents must be prepared to succeed in the role of new clinical faculty member. However, no blueprint or recommendations have yet been provided to facilitate this transition. The purpose of this review article is to evaluate the literature regarding transitioning pharmacy students and/or residents into faculty roles. The literature reviewed represents nursing, medical, graduate school, and engineering disciplines because no literature on this topic was available from the pharmacy profession. Based on the recommendations provided in the literature and on the authors’ experience at their college, they created a blueprint consisting of 7 components to help residents transition directly into their roles as faculty members.     

Cooperation of medical and pharmaceutical sciences between private and national universities to educate professionals in the fields of drug development and rational pharmacotherapy

Cooperation in education and research in medical and pharmaceutical sciences between Kobe Pharmaceutical University and Kobe University was started in 2008 for training professionals in drug development and rational pharmacotherapy. Initially, we started a two-year pharmacy residency program. Our pharmacy residents can attend lectures at our universities, and they also help pharmacist preceptors educate undergraduate pharmacy students in practical training. As curricula for cooperative education of pharmacy, nursing and medical students, we developed two new elective subjects (early exposure to clinical training for first year students and IPW (inter-professional work) seminar for fifth year pharmacy students) to learn about the roles of health care professionals in a medical team. Cooperative research between faculty members and graduate students is also in progress. For faculty and staff developments, invited lectures by clinical pharmacy and medical professors from the United States on the clinical education system in pharmacy and medicine in the United States have been held. This systematic cooperation will contribute to the promotion of a new curriculum for inter-professional education in the health-science fields.     

The Prevalence and Characteristics of Dual PharmD/MPH Programs Offered at US Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

Objective. To assess the prevalence and characteristics of curriculum in dual doctor of pharmacy (PharmD)/master of public health (MPH) degree programs offered by US pharmacy programs.Methods. An 18-item survey instrument was developed and distributed online to faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy.Results. Of the 110 colleges and schools that responded, 23 (21%) offered a PharmD/MPH degree. Common characteristics of these 23 programs included current PharmD program structure (3 + 1 year), early curricular recruitment, small enrollment, and interdisciplinary coursework occurring online and in the classroom. The impact of the dual degree on the curriculum and longevity of the dual-degree programs varied. About 55% of responding programs without a formal dual-degree program reported that additional public health training was available.Conclusion. Twenty-one percent of colleges and schools of pharmacy offer a combined PharmD/MPH dual degree. Most programs required an additional 1 or 2 semesters to complete both degrees.     

Pharmacy Residency Match Rates and Predictors

Objective. To determine acceptance rates to postgraduate year 1 (PGY1) pharmacy residencies and examine the impact of several variables on acceptance rate.Methods. Residency match data for every US college and school of pharmacy with a graduating class between 2008 and 2011 were sorted by graduating class and applicant match rates into PGY1 residency programs. Data were analyzed to determine factors influencing PGY1 match rates.Results. The graduating class match rate to PGY1 residencies was 14.2% for all colleges and schools, 16.0% for public colleges and schools, and 12.6% for private colleges and schools. Colleges and schools with a first graduating class greater than 20 years ago matched 16.7% of students to residency programs.Conclusion. Whether the college or school was public rather than private was an influencing factor on both graduating class and applicant match rates. Years since first graduating class influenced applicant match rate only.     

Assessment of Full-time Faculty Preceptors By Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy in the United States and Puerto Rico

Objective. To identify the manner in which colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States and Puerto Rico assess full-time faculty preceptors. Methods. Directors of pharmacy practice (or equivalent title) were invited to complete an online, self-administered questionnaire.Results. Seventy of the 75 respondents (93.3%) confirmed that their college or school assessed full-time pharmacy faculty members based on activities related to precepting students at a practice site. The most commonly reported assessment components were summative student evaluations (98.5%), type of professional service provided (92.3%), scholarly accomplishments (86.2%), and community service (72.3%). Approximately 42% of respondents indicated that a letter of evaluation provided by a site-based supervisor was included in their assessment process. Some colleges and schools also conducted onsite assessment of faculty members.Conclusions. Most colleges and schools of pharmacy assess full-time faculty-member preceptors via summative student assessments, although other strategies are used. Given the important role of preceptors in ensuring students are prepared for pharmacy practice, colleges and schools of pharmacy should review their assessment strategies for full-time faculty preceptors, keeping in mind the methodologies used by other institutions.     

Attributes of Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy in the United States

Objectives

To compare the attributes of US colleges and schools of pharmacy and describe the extent of change to the pharmacy education enterprise associated with the addition of new schools.

Methods

Attributes analyzed included whether the college or school of pharmacy was old or new, public or private, secular or faith-based, and on or not on an academic health center (AHC) campus; had 3- or 4- year programs; and had PhD students enrolled. PharmD student enrollment-to-faculty ratios and junior-to-senior faculty ratios also were examined.

Results

Of the new colleges/schools, 76% were private and 79% were not located on a campus with an AHC; 6% had PhD enrollment compared with 80% of old colleges/schools. Faculty ratios were related to several college/school attributes, including the presence or absence of PhD students and whether the college/school was public or private.

Conclusions

Attributes of new colleges and schools of pharmacy have changed the overall profile of all colleges and schools of pharmacy. For example, smaller percentages of all colleges and schools of pharmacy are public and have PhD enrollees.     

The 2016 ACCP Pharmacotherapy Didactic Curriculum Toolkit

The 2016 American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP) Educational Affairs Committee was charged with updating and contemporizing ACCP's 2009 Pharmacotherapy Didactic Curriculum Toolkit. The toolkit has been designed to guide schools and colleges of pharmacy in developing, maintaining, and modifying their curricula. The 2016 committee reviewed the recent medical literature and other documents to identify disease states that are responsive to drug therapy. Diseases and content topics were organized by organ system, when feasible, and grouped into tiers as defined by practice competency. Tier 1 topics should be taught in a manner that prepares all students to provide collaborative, patient‐centered care upon graduation and licensure. Tier 2 topics are generally taught in the professional curriculum, but students may require additional knowledge or skills after graduation (e.g., residency training) to achieve competency in providing direct patient care. Tier 3 topics may not be taught in the professional curriculum; thus, graduates will be required to obtain the necessary knowledge and skills on their own to provide direct patient care, if required in their practice. The 2016 toolkit contains 276 diseases and content topics, of which 87 (32%) are categorized as tier 1, 133 (48%) as tier 2, and 56 (20%) as tier 3. The large number of tier 1 topics will require schools and colleges to use creative pedagogical strategies to achieve the necessary practice competencies. Almost half of the topics (48%) are tier 2, highlighting the importance of postgraduate residency training or equivalent practice experience to competently care for patients with these disorders. The Pharmacotherapy Didactic Curriculum Toolkit will continue to be updated to provide guidance to faculty at schools and colleges of pharmacy as these academic pharmacy institutions regularly evaluate and modify their curricula to keep abreast of scientific advances and associated practice changes. Access the current Pharmacotherapy Didactic Curriculum Toolkit at http://www.accp.com/docs/positions/misc/Toolkit_final.pdf     

Objective structured clinical examinations in doctor of pharmacy programs in the United States

Objectives

To describe current objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) practices in doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) programs in the United States.

Methods

Structured interviews were conducted with PharmD faculty members between September 2008 and May 2010 to collect information about awareness of and interest in OSCE, current OSCE practices, and barriers to OSCEs.

Results

Of 108 US colleges and schools of pharmacy identified, interviews were completed for a representative sample of 88 programs (81.5% participation rate). Thirty-two pharmacy programs reported using OSCEs; however, practices within these programs varied. Eleven of the programs consistently administered examinations of 3 or more stations, required all students to complete the same scenario(s), and had processes in place to ensure consistency of standardized patients'' role portrayal. Of the 55 programs not using OSCEs, approximately half were interested in using the technique. Common barriers to OSCE implementation or expansion were cost and faculty members'' workloads.

Conclusions

There is wide interest in using OSCEs within pharmacy education. However, few colleges and schools of pharmacy conduct OSCEs in an optimal manner, and most do not adhere to best practices in OSCE construction and administration.     

A Train-the-Trainer Approach to a Shared Pharmacogenomics Curriculum for US Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

Objective. To assess pharmacy faculty trainers’ perceptions of a Web-based train-the-trainer program for PharmGenEd, a shared pharmacogenomics curriculum for health professional students and licensed clinicians.Methods. Pharmacy faculty trainers (n=58, representing 39 colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States and 1 school from Canada) participated in a train-the-trainer program consisting of up to 9 pharmacogenomics topics. Posttraining survey instruments assessed faculty trainers’ perceptions toward the training program and the likelihood of their adopting the educational materials as part of their institution’s curriculum.Results. Fifty-five percent of faculty trainers reported no prior formal training in pharmacogenomics. There was a significant increase (p<0.001) in self-reported ability to teach pharmacogenomics to pharmacy students after participants viewed the webinar and obtained educational materials. Nearly two-thirds (64%) indicated at least a “good” likelihood of adopting PharmGenEd materials at their institution during the upcoming academic year. More than two-thirds of respondents indicated interest in using PharmGenEd materials to train licensed health professionals, and 95% indicated that they would recommend the program to other pharmacy faculty members.Conclusion. As a result of participating in the train-the-trainer program in pharmacogenomics, faculty member participants gained confidence in teaching pharmacogenomics to their students, and the majority of participants indicated a high likelihood of adopting the program at their institution. A Web-based train-the-trainer model appears to be a feasible strategy for training pharmacy faculty in pharmacogenomics.