Consumption of High Fat Foods Influences Taste Preferences

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if frequent consumption of high fat foods would influence the acceptance of a fat modified food. Subjects (N = 80) completed a questionnaire to determine frequency of use of 15 high fat and 15 low fat foods and reasons for their use. Subjects were divided into frequent and infrequent consumers of high fat foods and asked to rate the acceptability of a low and high fat version of a casserole using a nine-point hedonic scale. There were no significant differences in acceptability scores between the infrequent and frequent consumers of high fat foods when evaluating the low fat casserole (6.9 ± 1.5 vs. 7.0 ± 1.1). However, the frequent consumers rated the overall acceptability of the high fat casserole significantly higher than the infrequent customers (7.4 ± 1.0 vs. 6.8 ± 1.6, P = 0.03). As health conscious individuals eat fewer high fat foods and more low fat foods, taste preferences for fat may change.     

Maternal Zinc Intakes and Homeostatic Adjustments during Pregnancy and Lactation

Zinc plays critical roles during embryogenesis, fetal growth, and milk secretion, which increase the zinc need for pregnancy and lactation. Increased needs can be met by increasing the dietary zinc intake, along with making homeostatic adjustments in zinc utilization. Potential homeostatic adjustments include changes in circulating zinc, increased zinc absorption, decreased zinc losses, and changes in whole body zinc kinetics. Although severe zinc deficiency during pregnancy has devastating effects, systematic reviews and meta-analysis of the effect of maternal zinc supplementation on pregnancy outcomes have consistently shown a limited benefit. We hypothesize, therefore, that zinc homeostatic adjustments during pregnancy and lactation improve zinc utilization sufficiently to provide the increased zinc needs in these stages and, therefore, mitigate immediate detrimental effects due to a low zinc intake. The specific questions addressed are the following: How is zinc utilization altered during pregnancy and lactation? Are those homeostatic adjustments influenced by maternal zinc status, dietary zinc, or zinc supplementation? These questions are addressed by critically reviewing results from published human studies on zinc homeostasis during pregnancy and lactation carried out in different populations worldwide.     

Impact of Diet Composition in Adult Offspring is Dependent on Maternal Diet during Pregnancy and Lactation in Rats

The Thrifty Phenotype Hypothesis proposes that the fetus takes cues from the maternal environment to predict its postnatal environment. A mismatch between the predicted and actual environments precipitates an increased risk of chronic disease. Our objective was to determine if, following a high fat, high sucrose (HFS) diet challenge in adulthood, re-matching offspring to their maternal gestational diet would improve metabolic health more so than if there was no previous exposure to that diet. Animals re-matched to a high prebiotic fiber diet (HF) had lower body weight and adiposity than animals re-matched to a high protein (HP) or control (C) diet and also had increased levels of the satiety hormones GLP-1 and PYY (p < 0.05). Control animals, whether maintained throughout the study on AIN-93M, or continued on HFS rather than reverting back to AIN-93M, did not differ from each other in body weight or adiposity. Overall, the HF diet was associated with the most beneficial metabolic phenotype (body fat, glucose control, satiety hormones). The HP diet, as per our previous work, had detrimental effects on body weight and adiposity. Findings in control rats suggest that the obesogenic potential of the powdered AIN-93 diet warrants investigation.     

Sprague Dawley Rats Gaining Weight on a High Energy Diet Exhibit Damage to Taste Tissue Even after Return to a Healthy Diet

Many reports detail taste dysfunction in humans and animals with obesity. For example, mice consuming an obesogenic diet for a short period have fewer taste buds than their lean littermates. Further, rats with diet-induced obesity (DIO) show blunted electrophysiological responses to taste in the brainstem. Here, we studied the effects of high energy diet (HED)-induced peripheral taste damage in rats, and whether this deficiency could be reversed by returning to a regular chow diet. Separate groups of rats consumed a standard chow diet (Chow), a HED for 10 weeks followed by a return to chow (HED/chow), or a HED for 10 weeks followed by a restricted HED that was isocaloric with consumption by the HED/chow group (HED/isocal). Fungiform taste papilla (FP) and circumvallate taste bud abundance were quantified several months after HED groups switched diets. Results showed that both HED/chow and HED/isocal rats had significantly fewer FP and lower CV taste bud abundance than control rats fed only chow. Neutrophil infiltration into taste tissues was also quantified, but did not vary with treatment on this timeline. Finally, the number of cells undergoing programmed cell death, measured with caspase-3 staining, inversely correlated with taste bud counts, suggesting taste buds may be lost to apoptosis as a potential mechanism for the taste dysfunction observed in obesity. Collectively, these data show that DIO has lasting deleterious effects on the peripheral taste system, despite a change from a HED to a healthy diet, underscoring the idea that obesity rather than diet predicts damage to the taste system.     

Sex Differences in Early Programming by Maternal High Fat Diet Induced-Obesity and Fish Oil Supplementation in Mice

Pre-pregnancy obesity is a contributing factor for impairments in offspring metabolic health. Interventional strategies during pregnancy are a potential approach to alleviate and/or prevent obesity and obesity related metabolic alterations in the offspring. Fish oil (FO), rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) exerts metabolic health benefits. However, the role of FO in early life remains still unknown. Hence, this study objective was to determine the effect of FO supplementation in mice from pre-pregnancy through lactation, and to study the post-natal metabolic health effects in gonadal fat and liver of offspring fed high fat (HF) diet with or without FO. Female C57BL6J mice aged 4–5 weeks were fed a HF (45% fat) diet supplemented with or without FO (30 g/kg of diet) and low fat (LF; 10% fat) pre-pregnancy through lactation. After weaning, offspring (male and female) from HF or FO dams either continued the same diet (HF-HF and FO-FO) or switched to the other diet (HF-FO and FO-HF) for 13 weeks, creating four groups of treatment, and LF-LF was used as a control group. Serum, gonadal fat and liver tissue were collected at termination for metabolic analyses. Offspring of both sexes fed HF with or without fish oil gained (p < 0.05) more weight post weaning, compared to LF-LF-fed mice. All the female offspring groups supplemented with FO had reduced body weight compared to the respective male groups. Further, FO-FO supplementation in both sexes (p < 0.05) improved glucose clearance and insulin sensitivity compared to HF-HF. All FO-FO fed mice had significantly reduced adipocyte size compared to HF-HF group in both male and females. Inflammation, measured by mRNA levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (Mcp1), was reduced (p < 0.05) with FO supplementation in both sexes in gonadal fat and in the liver. Markers of fatty acid synthesis, fatty acid synthase (Fasn) showed no sex specific differences in gonadal fat and liver of mice supplemented with HF. Female mice had lower liver triglycerides than male counterparts. Supplementation of FO in mice improved metabolic health of offspring by lowering markers of lipid synthesis and inflammation.     

High Choline Intake during Pregnancy Reduces Characteristics of the Metabolic Syndrome in Male Wistar Rat Offspring Fed a High Fat But Not a Normal Fat Post-Weaning Diet

Maternal choline intakes are below recommendations, potentially impairing the child’s later-life metabolic health. This study aims to elucidate the interaction between the choline content of the gestational diet (GD) and fat content of the post-weaning diet (PWD) on metabolic phenotype of male Wistar rats. Pregnant Wistar rats were fed a standard rodent diet (AIN-93G) with either recommended choline (RC, 1 g/kg diet choline bitartrate) or high choline (HC, 2.5-fold). Male pups were weaned to either a normal (16%) fat (NF) or a high (45%) fat (HF) diet for 17 weeks. Body weight, visceral adiposity, food intake, energy expenditure, plasma hormones, triglycerides, and hepatic fatty acids were measured. HC-HF offspring had 7% lower body weight but not food intake, and lower adiposity, plasma triglycerides, and insulin resistance compared to RC-HF. They also had increased hepatic n-3 fatty acids and a reduced n-6/n-3 and C 18:1 n-9/C18:0 ratios. In contrast, HC-NF offspring had 6–8% higher cumulative food intake and body weight, as well as increased leptin and elevated hepatic C16:1 n-7/C16:0 ratio compared to RC-NF. Therefore, gestational choline supplementation associated with improved long-term regulation of several biomarkers of the metabolic syndrome in male Wistar rat offspring fed a HF, but not a NF, PWD.     

Beneficial Effects of High Intensity Interval Training and/or Linseed Oil Supplementation to Limit Obesity-Induced Oxidative Stress in High Fat Diet-Fed Rats

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and linseed oil (LO) supplementation are effective strategies to reduce obesity-induced oxidative stress. Our aim was to determine whether the HIIT + LO combination prevents obesity-induced oxidative stress in high fat diet (HFD)-fed rats. HFD-fed 8-week-old, male, Wistar rats were subdivided in four groups: HFD, LO (2% of sunflower oil replaced with 2% of LO in the HFD), HIIT (4 days/week for 12 weeks), and HIIT + LO. Wistar rats fed a low-fat diet (LFD) were used as controls. Epididymal and subcutaneous adipose tissue, gastrocnemius muscle, liver, and plasma samples were collected to measure oxidative stress markers (AOPP, oxLDL), antioxidant (SOD, CAT, and GPx activities) and pro-oxidant (NOx and XO) enzyme activities. Compared with the LFD, the HFD altered the pro/antioxidant status in different tissues (increase of AOPP, oxLDL, SOD and catalase activities in plasma, and SOD activity increase in liver and decrease in adipose tissues) but not in gastrocnemius. LO upregulated CAT activity and decreased NOx in liver. HIIT alleviated HFD negative effects in liver by reducing SOD and NOx activities. Moreover, the HIIT + LO combination potentiated SOD activity upregulation in subcutaneous tissue. HIIT and LO supplementation have independent beneficial effects on the pro/antioxidant balance. Their association promotes SOD activity in subcutaneous adipose tissue.     

Improvement of Hypertriglyceridemia by Roasted Nelumbinis folium in High Fat/High Cholesterol Diet Rat Model

Hypertriglyceridemia is a condition characterized by high triglyceride levels and is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases. The present study was designed to investigate the inhibitory effect of roasted Nelumbinis folium (RN), which is a medicinal substance produced by heating lotus leaves, on lipid metabolism in high fat/cholesterol (HFC) diet-induced hypertriglyceridemia. Except for those in the control group, Sprague–Dawley rats were fed an HFC diet for four weeks to induce hypertriglyceridemia. During the next nine weeks, the control, regular diet; HFC, HFC diet, FLU, fluvastatin (3 mg/kg/day); RNL, RN (100 mg/kg/day); RNH, RN (200 mg/kg/day) were orally administered together with the diet, and the experiments were conducted for a total of 13 weeks. The weight of the epididymal adipose tissue, liver, and heart of rats in the HFC diet group significantly increased compared to those in the control group but improved in the RN-treated group. It was also confirmed that vascular function, which is damaged by an HFC diet, was improved after RN treatment. The levels of insulin, glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein increased in the HFC diet group compared to those in the control group, while the administration of RN attenuated these parameters. In addition, the administration of RN significantly reduced the gene expression of both LXR and SREBP-1, which indicated the inhibitory effect of the biosynthesis of triglycerides caused by RN. The results indicated that RN administration resulted in an improvement in the overall lipid metabolism and a decrease in the concentration of triglycerides in the HFC diet-induced rat model of hypertriglyceridemia. Therefore, our findings suggest that the RN can be a candidate material to provide a new direction for treating hypertriglyceridemia.     

Associations between Maternal Diet,Body Composition and Gut Microbial Ecology in Pregnancy

Maternal body composition, gestational weight gain (GWG) and diet quality influence offspring obesity risk. While the gut microbiome is thought to play a crucial role, it is understudied in pregnancy. Using a longitudinal pregnancy cohort, maternal anthropometrics, body composition, fecal microbiome and dietary intake were assessed at 12, 24 and 36 weeks of gestation. Fecal samples (n = 101, 98 and 107, at each trimester, respectively) were utilized for microbiome analysis via 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Data analysis included alpha- and beta-diversity measures and assessment of compositional changes using MaAsLin2. Correlation analyses of serum metabolic and anthropometric markers were performed against bacterial abundance and predicted functional pathways. α-diversity was unaltered by pregnancy stage or maternal obesity status. Actinobacteria, Lachnospiraceae, Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus and Anaerotuncus abundances were associated with gestation stage. Maternal obesity status was associated with increased abundance of Lachnospiraceae, Bilophila, Dialister and Roseburia. Maternal BMI, fat mass, triglyceride and insulin levels were positively associated with Bilophila. Correlations of bacterial abundance with diet intake showed that Ruminococcus and Paraprevotella were associated with total fat and unsaturated fatty acid intake, while Collinsella and Anaerostipes were associated with protein intake. While causal relationships remain unclear, collectively, these findings indicate pregnancy- and maternal obesity-dependent interactions between dietary factors and the maternal gut microbiome.     

Dissociation between Corneal and Cardiometabolic Changes in Response to a Time-Restricted Feeding of a High Fat Diet

Mice fed a high fat diet (HFD) ab libitum show corneal dysregulation, as evidenced by decreased sensitivity and impaired wound healing. Time-restricted (TR) feeding can effectively mitigate the cardiometabolic effects of an HFD. To determine if TR feeding attenuates HFD-induced corneal dysregulation, this study evaluated 6-week-old C57BL/6 mice fed an ad libitum normal diet (ND), an ad libitum HFD, or a time-restricted (TR) HFD for 10 days. Corneal sensitivity was measured using a Cochet-Bonnet aesthesiometer. A corneal epithelial abrasion wound was created, and wound closure was monitored for 30 h. Neutrophil and platelet recruitment were assessed by immunofluorescence microscopy. TR HFD fed mice gained less weight (p < 0.0001), had less visceral fat (p = 0.015), and had reduced numbers of adipose tissue macrophages and T cells (p < 0.05) compared to ad libitum HFD fed mice. Corneal sensitivity was reduced in ad libitum HFD and TR HFD fed mice compared to ad libitum ND fed mice (p < 0.0001). Following epithelial abrasion, corneal wound closure was delayed (~6 h), and neutrophil and platelet recruitment was dysregulated similarly in ad libitum and TR HFD fed mice. TR HFD feeding appears to mitigate adipose tissue inflammation and adiposity, while the cornea remains sensitive to the pathologic effects of HFD feeding.     

长期应激结合高脂饲料对大鼠胸主动脉的损伤作用

[目的]观察长期应激结合高脂饲料对大鼠胸主动脉的损伤作用。[方法]雄性Wistar大鼠24只,随机分为4组,每组6只,分别为对照组（c组）、高脂饲料喂养组（HC组）、单纯足底电刺激并辅以噪声刺激组（CS组）及高脂饲料结合应激组（HC＋CS组）。持续12周实验结束后取血,取胸主动脉。检测大鼠血清中总胆固醇（TC）、三酰甘油（TG）、高密度脂蛋白（HDL）、低密度脂蛋白（LDL）、游离脂肪酸（FFA）、超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、丙二醛（MDA）、超氧阴离子（O^-2）;采用放免法检测血清中肿瘤坏死因子（TNF-α）、ELISA法检测氧化型低密度脂蛋白（OX-LDL）,电镜观察胸主动脉病理变化。[结果]血清学指标检测显示HC＋CS组与HC组及cs组有明显的区别：出现了更明显的血脂紊乱（TC、FFA、LDL升高,HDL下降,尤其OX-LDL升高很明显）,炎症反应（血清TNF-α升高）,氧化应激（SOD活力明显下降,血清MDA和O^-2水平明显升高）;同时电镜观察发现HC＋CS组的胸主动脉也出现了明显损伤,而HC组和cs组的损伤程度明显较轻。[结论]长期应激结合高脂饲料有协同作用,可促进大鼠胸主动脉的损伤。     

Taste of Fat and Obesity: Different Hypotheses and Our Point of View

Obesity results from a temporary or prolonged positive energy balance due to an alteration in the homeostatic feedback of energy balance. Food, with its discriminative and hedonic qualities, is a key element of reward-based energy intake. An alteration in the brain reward system for highly palatable energy-rich foods, comprised of fat and carbohydrates, could be one of the main factors involved in the development of obesity by increasing the attractiveness and consumption of fat-rich foods. This would induce, in turn, a decrease in the taste of fat. A better understanding of the altered reward system in obesity may open the door to a new era for the diagnosis, management and treatment of this disease.     

Effect of Ethyl Pyruvate on Skeletal Muscle Metabolism in Rats Fed on a High Fat Diet

Impaired mitochondrial capacity may be implicated in the pathology of chronic metabolic diseases. To elucidate the effect of ethyl pyruvate supplementation on skeletal muscles metabolism we examined changes in activities of mitochondrial and antioxidant enzymes, as well as sulfhydryl groups oxidation (an indirect marker of oxidative stress) during the development of obesity. After 6 weeks feeding of control or high fat diet, Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control diet, control diet and ethyl pyruvate, high fat diet, and high fat diet and ethyl pyruvate. Ethyl pyruvate was administered as 0.3% solution in drinking water, for the following 6 weeks. High fat diet feeding induced the increase of activities 3-hydroxyacylCoA dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, and fumarase. Moreover, higher catalase and superoxide dismutase activities, as well as sulfhydryl groups oxidation, were noted. Ethyl pyruvate supplementation did not affect the mitochondrial enzymes’ activities, but induced superoxide dismutase activity and sulfhydryl groups oxidation. All of the changes were observed in soleus muscle, but not in extensor digitorum longus muscle. Additionally, positive correlations between fasting blood insulin concentration and activities of catalase (p = 0.04), and superoxide dismutase (p = 0.01) in soleus muscle were noticed. Prolonged ethyl pyruvate consumption elevated insulin concentration, which may cause modifications in oxidative type skeletal muscles.     

孕期/哺乳期砷暴露对子鼠心、肝、脾、肾发育的影响

[目的]探讨孕期/哺乳期砷暴露对子鼠心、肝、脾、肾发育影响。[方法]昆明种孕小鼠48只,随机分成4组,每组12只。全孕期和哺乳期以自由饮水方式连续染毒。按饮水砷浓度分别设空白对照组,1、4、16 mg/L染砷组。子鼠生后追踪体重和身长发育情况。哺乳喂养,3周断乳。测量断乳子鼠心、肝、脾、肾脏器系数,观察子鼠心、肝、脾和肾组织形态。[结果]体格发育:出生第3、10、15和21天,各组子鼠平均体重和身长均随母鼠饮水砷浓度升高而降低(P<0.05)。脏器系数:生后3周,各组子鼠心、肝、脾、肾脏器系数均随母鼠饮水砷浓度升高而升高(P<0.05)。病理形态:染砷组断乳子鼠心肌纤维厚薄不均,排列紊乱,心肌细胞核密集;肝细胞以及肾皮质区近曲小管内皮细胞出现水变性,高剂量染砷组子鼠肾远曲小管出现蛋白管型;脾脏出现特征性结构边界不清,白髓面积逐渐变小,红髓面积逐渐增大等表现;上述病理损伤随染砷浓度增加而逐渐加重。[结论]孕期/哺乳期砷暴露导致断乳期子鼠多器官组织形态异常,此可能是砷致生后远期慢性疾病发生的解剖学基础和发育源性病因。     

The Influence of Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass and Diet on NaCl and Sucrose Taste Detection Thresholds and Number of Circumvallate and Fungiform Taste Buds in Female Rats

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) in rats attenuates preference for, and intake of, sugar solutions. Additionally, maintenance on a high-fat diet (HFD) reportedly alters behavioral responsiveness to sucrose in rodents in short-term drinking tests. Due to the fact that the behavioral tests to date rely on the hedonic value of the stimulus to drive responsiveness, we sought to determine whether taste detection thresholds to sucrose and NaCl are affected by these manipulations as measured in an operant two-response signal detection paradigm. Female rats were maintained on HFD or chow for 10 weeks, at which point animals received either RYGB or SHAM surgery followed by a gel-based diet and then powdered chow. Upon recovery, half of the rats that were previously on HFD were switched permanently to chow, and the other rats were maintained on their presurgical diets (n = 5–9/diet condition × surgery group for behavioral testing). The rats were then trained and tested in a gustometer. There was a significant interaction between diet condition and surgery on NaCl threshold that was attributable to a lower value in RYGB vs. SHAM rats in the HFD condition, but this failed to survive a Bonferroni correction. Importantly, there were no effects of diet condition or surgery on sucrose thresholds. Additionally, although recent evidence suggests that maintenance on HFD alters taste bud number in the circumvallate papillae (CV) of mice, in a subset of rats, we did not find that diet significantly influenced taste pores in the anterior tongue or CV of female rats. These results suggest that any changes in sucrose responsiveness in intake/preference or hedonically oriented tests in rats as a function of HFD maintenance or RYGB are not attributable to alterations in taste sensitivity.     

A. muciniphila Supplementation in Mice during Pregnancy and Lactation Affects the Maternal Intestinal Microenvironment

During pregnancy and lactation, considerable factors that affect the maternal microbiome are associated with the advancement of numerous diseases, which can potentially affect offspring health. Probiotics have shown potential for the maintenance of microbiota homeostasis of mothers in this period. The specific objective of this study was to investigate whether the application of Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) during pregnancy and lactation impacts maternal and offspring health. Here we show that dams fed with A. muciniphila is safe, enhances the intestinal barrier and alters gut microbiota composition and diversity at the end of lactation, including the significant enrichment of A. muciniphila and Ruminococcus_1 in offspring from probiotic-fed dams. However, compared with the control group, the fecal metabolites of the A. muciniphila group only changed slightly. Additionally, A. muciniphila supplementation did not significantly increase the abundance of A. muciniphila in the fecal microbiota of offspring mice. Compared with the control group, the fecal metabolic profile of three-week-old offspring of mice fed with A. muciniphila were significantly changed, containing the D-glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism pathways. These results provided evidence that A. muciniphila supplementation in mice during pregnancy and lactation is safe and seemed to have a more beneficial effect on dams. In the future, using probiotics to regulate maternal microbiomes during pregnancy and lactation could be shown to have a more lasting and beneficial effect.     

二陈汤对高脂饮食大鼠血脂及胰岛素抵抗的影响

目的：观察化痰方（二陈汤）对高脂饮食大鼠血脂及胰岛素抵抗的影响。方法：30只健康成年雄性大鼠按照随机数字表法分为正常组、高脂组和化痰组各10只,正常组给予正常饲料喂养,高脂组和化痰组给予高脂饲料喂养14周,化痰组第11周起给予二陈汤灌胃4周。在第14周末进行葡萄糖耐量实验（OGTT）和胰岛素耐量实验（ITT）,14周后处死大鼠,检测并比较各组血脂TC、TG的含量及第14周各组大鼠OGTT结果和ITT结果。结果：与正常组比较,高脂组大鼠血清中的TC和TG含量均明显升高（P〈0.01）;与高脂组比较,化痰组大鼠血清中的TG含量明显降低（P〈0.01）,TC有所降低,差异也有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。高脂组的空腹血糖明显高于正常组（P〈0.05）,而化痰组空腹血糖与正常组的比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;糖负荷后,高脂组的各个时间点的血糖均明显高于正常组（P〈0.05或P〈0.01）,而化痰组除了糖负荷后120 min的血糖明显高于正常组外（P〈0.01）,其余时间点与正常组的比较差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。腹腔注射胰岛素后,化痰组各时间点血糖下降幅度均明显高于高脂组,30 min时高脂组血糖降低18%,而化痰组大鼠降低26%。结论：二陈汤能够降低高脂饮食大鼠血脂的含量,改善胰岛素抵抗,值得在临床上推广使用。     

Impact of Genetic and Environmental Determinants of Taste with Food Preferences in Older Adults

ABSTRACT

Individual differences in the ability to detect bitter tasting compounds, such as phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) or its derivative, 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) has long been recognized as a common genetic trait. This observation has been proposed to explain some of the variability in the dietary habits of a population. Several members of the TAS2R receptor gene family encode taste receptors on the tongue, and genetic polymorphisms of TAS2R38 have been associated with marked differences in the perception of PTC and PROP. An association between TAS2R38 genotype and food preferences has been found among children, but no associations have been reported among older adults. This, along with the decreased ability to taste certain foods with increasing age, suggests that environmental factors are more important than genetic influences in food preferences among the elderly. The elderly may be more inclined to try and accept novel foods because of diet-related attitudes and beliefs that are formulated throughout the years.