调强放射治疗射野和剂量的验证

目的：为确保调强放射治疗的精确,利用自制和专用设备对每个射野的位置、形状和野内剂量分布进行验证。方法：用自制的位置验证标记球,贴在病人体表的某个固定位置,和病人一起进行CT扫描,设计计划时将此标记球设为位置验证靶区进行射野位置验证。利用加速器自带的射野影像系统（EPID）和治疗计划系统（TPS）的DRR图比对进行射野形状验证。利用Matrixx二维电离室矩阵和OnmiPro软件进行每个射野的剂量验证。结果：射野位置验证在统一调整系统后,误差结果满意。射野形状验证以3mm为标准,调整前的吻合率约为75％。剂量验证通过率大于等于95％的射野占77％。结论：通过81例鼻咽癌调强放疗的实验证明,利用上述三种方法对调强计划进行验证,可以及时纠正误差,确保计划准确执行。     

电子射野影像系统用于患者调强放射治疗计划剂量验证分析

目的分析电子射野影像系统(EPID)用于调强放射治疗计划剂量验证的准确性。方法选择2014年南通市第一人民医院住院行放射治疗宫颈癌术后患者10例,年龄45~71岁,中位年龄56岁。采用7野均分(0°、52°、104°、156°、208°、260°、310°7个角度)进行计划设计及剂量分布计算,获取归零野和实际野验证时叶片位移偏移、射野通过率,并将EPID归零野验证结果与PTW电离室矩阵归零野验证的射野通过率结果进行比较。结果EPID归零野和实际野验证获得的叶片偏移1 mm以内百分比数值的绝对值差异不大,但在208°、260°及310°3个角度差异有统计学意义。射野验证通过率在0°、52°时差异无统计学意义,而104°、156°、208°、260°、310°时差异有统计学意义。EPID归零野验证时获得的射野通过率与PTW电离室矩阵的验证结果差异无统计学意义。结论 EPID可以应用于调强计划的验证。     

基于EDose软件电子射野影像系统的调强剂量验证

目的:探讨电子射野影像系统(EPID)用于调强放射治疗三维剂量验证的可行性。方法:分别使用Varian公司的Trilogy加速器自带的EPID及EDose软件和美国Sun Nuclear公司的Mapcheck剂量验证系统及配套模体对10例调强放射治疗的患者进行剂量验证,记录并比较分析两种系统的绝对剂量和相对剂量γ通过率的相关性。结果:采用γ(3%/3mm)标准时,相对剂量EPID和Mapcheck验证的γ通过率分别为(98.51%±1.10%)、(98.73%±0.69%);绝对剂量EPID和Mapcheck验证的γ通过率分别为(96.50%±3.33%)、(97.64%±1.51%),两者均无统计学意义(P0.05)。其它标准的γ通过率有统计学意义。结论:EPID可以作为调强三维剂量验证的工具,比Mapcheck更方便快捷。     

利用模拟机及挡铅托架进行放疗前的治疗模拟

目的：通过对食管癌实例分析,理清放射治疗的全部过程,重点是利用模拟机模拟病人放疗过程,从中探讨模拟机的模拟过程在三维适形放射治疗中的临床应用价值。方法：以10位4野照射的食管癌病人为例,首先进行常规放疗模拟机的质量保证和质量控制（QA／QC）,本文重点介绍等中心精度的检验和光野射野的一致性;然后利用双螺旋CT机、体位固定装置、三维激光定位系统、常规放疗模拟机及挡铅托架对放疗病人进行体模制作、CT定位、制定治疗计划、制作挡铅及进行模拟验证,分别从寻找射野中心、射野验证、计算深度验证、治疗计划各项参数的可行性验证四个方面进行分析。结果：常规放疗模拟机的各项指标达到QA规定的允许限度内。通过治疗计划显示的各种参数（挡块、楔形等）的调整及修饰后,在常规X线模拟机下对照射野位置及计算深度进行验证可发现：全部患者的计算深度符合临床要求;大部分患者的剂量分布符合临床要求,成功率达90％;射野中心偏移误差最大为3．5mm,最小为0．5mm。在整个治疗过程中,两位患者出现了与床相撞的情况。结论：对放疗患者进行放疗前模拟的过程是三维适形放疗的重要环节,用于验证放疗计划的可行性,保证放疗过程安全有效地进行。     

基于EPID采用参数化梯度法测定光子束射野边界

【摘 要】 目的:探究参数化梯度方法（PGM）测量电子射野影像系统（EPID）光子束射野大小的可行性。 方法:PGM通过一个修改的双曲正切函数拟合Profile半影区。瓦里安EDGE机载aS1200采集6 MV和10 MV FF及FFF射束EPID数据,TrueBeam机载aS1000采集6 MV FF射束EPID数据。γ分析1 mm/1%标准量化PGM拟合Profile半影区与EPID测量半影区一致性。比较半高宽方法与PGM测量的FF射束射野大小,比较最大斜率方法与PGM测量的FFF射束射野大小;比较PGM在不同射束能量、不同EPID探测器类型和引入铅门位置误差后测量射野边界的稳定性和扩展性。 结果:半影区PGM拟合与EPID实测数据Pearson相关系数大于0.999,γ值小于0.2。FF射束,半高宽方法测定射野均大于PGM,且随着射野增大而增大,Profile本影去除后,两种方法测量差值显著减小;FFF射束,最大斜率方法与PGM测定射野大小差值在0.1 mm以内。PGM能够稳定测量不同能量、不同模态、不同EPID探测器类型射野边界,能够准确识别铅门1 mm位置变动。 结论:PGM可作为一种鲁棒通用的方法适用于EPID光子束射野质量保障。     

射野大小对全脑调强放疗计划EPID验证结果的影响

目的:利用电子射野影像系统（EPID）对全脑调强放疗计划进行γ测试,寻找计划设计对测试结果的影响,以此分析如何优化全脑调强计划以及推测EPID在剂量验证方面的局限性。方法:选取67例全脑放疗患者,对其放疗计划用加速器自带的EPID进行计划验证,对于容积旋转调强放疗（VMAT）计划统计并分析X方向射野大小与γ（3 mm/3%）通过率的关系,对于调强放疗（IMRT）对比分析大野调强和分野调强计划γ（3 mm/3%）通过率的差异。结果:VMAT计划验证结果发现X方向小于15 cm的射野γ（3 mm/3%）通过率普遍优于大于等于15 cm的射野,利用SPSS软件进行t检验,发现结果具有统计学意义（t=-3.828, P<0.05）;IMRT验证结果发现,X方向大于等于15 cm的射野会包含两个子野,合野验证时其交叠部分γ（3 mm/3%）通过率较差,而采用分野验证时,由于无交叠则通过率普遍较好。结论:全脑放疗VMAT计划将X方向射野控制在15 cm以内可以提升多叶准直器调节能力,并提高EPID验证的γ（3 mm/3%）通过率;EPID原件对低剂量区的响应偏差会导致全脑IMRT大野调强计划两子野交叠处γ（3 mm/3%）通过率较差,改用分野验证可以显著消除这种影响。     

电子射野影像系统在放疗中的质量保证应用

目的:把电子影像射野系统(EPID)应用到放疗质量保证的多个方面,从而保障病人得到精确放疗。方法:根据不同目的采用EPID不同模式拍片,如单曝光,双曝光,开始-中途-结束,连续拍片等模式,将获得的图像与目的图像进行比较。结果:对于患者的正位和侧位图像能较好的控制摆位误差;能简洁快速地验证光野和射野一致性;能大概地验证治疗计划系统(TPS)中调强射野的注量图;能检验多叶准直器(MLC)的到位精度。结论:充分合理地利用EPID,可在放疗中进行多项质量保证,保证精确放疗。     

非晶硅电子射野影像装置在直线加速器日检中的应用

目的:在分析非晶硅电子射野影像系统(a-Si EPl D)的剂量学基础上,利用开发的软件自动分析每日采集的射野影像,获取直线加速器的输出剂量、平坦度、对称性及射野尺寸等参数,使a-Si EPID成为加速器的快速日检工具。方法:首先对a-Si EPID进行校准,并将其分成16个大小为10 cm×10 cm的子区域,移动a-Si EPID依次照射,截取中心轴附近10 cm×10 cm(SSD 160 cm)的区域相互叠加获取增益影像,并进行输出剂量校准。随后通过自编软件根据校准数据分析每天标准射野影像得出加速器日检参数:输出剂量、射野尺寸、平坦度、对称性,并将结果与指形电离室及三维水箱数据进行比较。结果:加速器出束从97 MU至103 MU,模拟剂量偏差±3%。结果显示a-Si EPID中心轴灰度剂量呈高度线性,与指形电离室的最大偏差为小于1%。平坦度、对称性两个参数的基线偏离与三维水箱高度一致,结果均分别小于±0.5%和±1.5%。结论:因测量准确性及便利性,可以利用自编软件及a-Si EPID用于加速器日检。     

基于小波融合多野剂量评估计划整体通过率的可行性

目的:评价基于小波方法融合电子射野影像装置(EPID)多野剂量分析计划整体通过率的可行性。方法:选取70例不同部位的容积调强(VMAT)双弧计划,用Varian公司的a Si500-ⅡEPID系统进行剂量验证,将TPS计划和验证结果的通量图导出,用Matlab读取通量图,并基于小波的一层分解重构分别对每个计划的单弧通量图进行融合。用Matlab仿真3%/3 mm标准的γ通过率,并记录双弧计划每个弧的结果和融合后的结果,共3组数据。同时利用PTW Detector729矩阵对计划进行剂量验证作为对照组,与融合后的结果行配对t检验分析。结果:双弧计划每个弧的通过率和融合后的通过率均在95%以上,两种方式不同部位双弧VMAT计划的通过率均无统计学差异(t=1.453~2.129,P0.05)。结论:基于小波融合EPID多野剂量可用于评估VMAT双弧计划整体通过率,其结果有助于更全面保障调强放疗计划验证的准确性。     

Machine Performance Check束流均匀性改变对Portal Dosimetry计划剂量验证的影响

目的：探究Machine Performance Check(MPC)系统束流均匀性变化对Portal Dosimetry(PD)计划验证的影响,为临床MPC均匀性的阈值设定和电子影像系统（EPID）的校准频率提供参考。方法：选取本中心EDGE加速器上首次治疗患者26例和10 cm×10 cm方野1例,制定治疗计划和验证计划。在MPC束流均匀性偏差增大的情况下,分别在EPID校准前和校准后执行验证计划,并在计划系统PD模块中分析,统计对比图像剂量和γ通过率。本研究还列出EDGE加速器一年间MPC束流均匀性的结果。结果：MPC 1年的统计结果显示束流均匀性偏差的升高趋势明显并且速度加快,表明EPID存在设备老化现象。EPID校准前后验证计划的图像剂量和γ通过率的对比结果表明不同能量方野计划在影像板中心附近的剂量差异为1%～2%,临床射野计划由于复杂性提高,剂量差异最大可以达到10%。EPID校准后的γ通过率高于校准前。结论：EPID探测器的一致性改变对PD计划剂量验证有一定影响,提示临床MPC均匀性阈值为2%时能够对PD计划剂量验证起到预警作用,EPID应在MPC重新采集基线之前校准,以...     

Full forward Monte Carlo calculation of portal dose from MLC collimated treatment beams

This work deals with a full Monte Carlo (MC) simulation of a radiotherapy treatment facility including a multi-leaf collimator (MLC) and electronic portal imaging device (EPID). A method for a planar calibration of the EPID response in terms of dose using the MC technique is presented. Calibration measurements and simulations with several blocks of attenuating material are carried out down to approximatively 5% of the open field transmitted dose. A linear relationship is shown between the squared EPID signal and the MC calculated dose. The calibrated EPID was used as a dosimetric system to validate a MC model for the MLC. Computations and measurements agreed within 2% of dose difference (or 2 mm in regions of high dose gradient). The technique described herein is not significantly limited by physics transport model constraints. Therefore it can potentially provide a more accurate verification of dose delivery to inhomogeneous anatomical regions in patients undergoing complex multi-field conformal or intensity-modulated radiation therapy.     

Use of EPID for leaf position accuracy QA of dynamic multi-leaf collimator (DMLC) treatment

We describe in this paper an alternative method for routine dynamic multi-leaf collimator (DMLC) quality assurance (QA) using an electronic portal imaging device (EPID). Currently, this QA is done at our institution by filming an intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) test field producing a pattern of five 1-mm bands 2 cm apart and performing a visual spot-check for leaf alignment, motion lags, sticking and any other mechanical problems. In this study, we used an amorphous silicon aS500 EPID and films contemporaneously for the DMLC QA to test the practicality and efficacy of EPID vis-à-vis film. The EPID image was transformed to an integrated dose map by first converting the reading to dose using a calibration curve, and then multiplying by the number of averaged frames. The EPID dose map was then back-projected to the central axis plane and was compared to the film measurements which were scanned and converted to dose using a film dosimetry system. We determined the full-width half-maximum (FWHM) of each band for both images, and evaluated the dose to the valley between two peaks. We also simulated mechanical problems by increasing the band gap to 1.5 mm for some leaf pairs. Our results show that EPID is as good as the film in resolving the band pattern of the IMRT test field. Although the resolution of the EPID is lower than that of the film (0.78 mm/pixel vs 0.36 mm/pixel for the film), it is high enough to faithfully reproduce the band pattern without significant distortion. The FWHM of the EPID is 2.84 mm, slightly higher than the 2.01 mm for the film. The lowest dose to the valley is significantly lower for the EPID (15.5% of the peak value) than for the film (28.6%), indicating that EPID is less energy independent. The simulated leaf problem can be spotted by visual inspection of both images; however, it is more difficult for the film without being scanned and contrast-enhanced. EPID images have the advantage of being already digital and their analysis can easily be automated to flag leaf pairs outside tolerance limits of set parameters such as FWHM, peak dose values, peak location, and distance between peaks. This automation is a new feature that will help preempt MLC motion interlocks and decrease machine downtime during actual IMRT treatment. We conclude that since EPID images can be acquired, analyzed and stored much more conveniently than film, EPID is a good alternative to film for routine DMLC QA.     

Initial evaluation of a commercial EPID modified to a novel direct-detection configuration for radiotherapy dosimetry

Electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs) integrated with medical linear accelerators utilize an indirect-detection EPID configuration (ID-EPID). Amorphous silicon ID-EPIDs provide high quality low dose images for verification of radiotherapy treatments but they have limitations as dosimeters. The standard ID-EPID configuration includes a high atomic number phosphor scintillator screen, a 1 mm copper layer, and other nonwater equivalent materials covering the detector. This configuration leads to marked differences in the response of an ID-EPID compared to standard radiotherapy dosimeters such as ion chambers in water. In this study the phosphor and copper were removed from a standard commercial EPID to modify the configuration to a direct-detection EPID (DD-EPID). Using solid water as the buildup and backscatter for the detector, dosimetric measurements were performed on the DD-EPID and compared to standard dose-in-water data for 6 and 18 MV photons. The sensitivity of the DD-EPID was approximately eight times less than the ID-EPID but the signal was sufficient to produce accurate and reproducible beam profile measurements for open beams and an intensity-modulated beam. Due to the lower signal levels it was found necessary to ensure that the dark field correction (no radiation) DD-EPID signal was stable or updated frequently. The linearity of dose response was comparable to the ID-EPID but with a greater under-response at low doses. DD-EPID measurements of field size output factors and beam profiles at the depth of maximum dose (dmax), and tissue-maximum ratios between the depths of 0.5 and 10 cm, were in close agreement with dose in water measurements. At depths beyond dmax the DD-EPID showed a greater change in response to field size than ionisation chamber measurements and the beam penumbrae were broader compared to diode scans. The modified DD-EPID configuration studied here has the potential to improve the performance of EPIDs for dose verification of radiotherapy treatments.     

Computer verification of fluence map for intensity modulated radiation therapy

In a treatment planning system for intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), the time sequence of multileaf collimator (MLC) settings are derived from an optimal fluence map as a postoptimization process using a software module called a "leaf sequencer." The dosimetric accuracy of the dynamic delivery depends on the functionality of the module and it is important to verify independently the correctness of the leaf sequences for each field of a patient treatment. This verification is unique to the IMRT treatment and has been done using radiographic film, electronic portal imaging device (EPID) or electronic imaging system (BIS). The measurement tests both the leaf sequencer and the dynamic multileaf collimator (MLC) delivery system, providing a reliable assurance of clinical IMRT treatment. However, this process is labor intensive and time consuming. In this paper, we propose to separate quality assurance (QA) of the leaf sequencer from the dynamic MLC delivery system. We describe a simple computer algorithm for the verification of the leaf sequences. The software reads in the leaf sequences and simulates the motion of the MLC leaves. The generated fluence map is then compared quantitatively with the reference map from the treatment planning system. A set of pre-defined QA indices is introduced to measure the "closeness" between the computed and the reference maps. The approach has been used to validate the CORVUS (NOMOS Co., Sewickley, PA) treatment plans. The results indicate that the proposed approach is robust and suitable to support the complex IMRT QA process.     

Dose-response characteristics of an amorphous silicon EPID

Electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs) were originally developed for the purpose of patient setup verification. Nowadays, they are increasingly used as dosimeters (e.g., for IMRT verification and linac-specific QA). A prerequisite for any clinical dosimetric application is a detailed understanding of the detector's dose-response behavior. The aim of this study is to investigate the dosimetric properties of an amorphous silicon EPID (Elekta IVIEWGT) with respect to three photon beam qualities: 6, 10, and 25 MV. The EPID showed an excellent temporal stability on short term as well as on long term scales. The stability throughout the day was strongly influenced by warming up, which took several hours and affected EPID response by 2.5%. Ghosting effects increased the sensitivity of the EPID. They became more pronounced with decreasing time intervals between two exposures as well as with increasing dose. Due to ghosting, changes in pixel sensitivity amounted up to 16% (locally) for the 25 MV photon beam. It was observed that the response characteristics of our EPID depended on dose as well as on dose rate. Doubling the dose rate increased the EPID sensitivity by 1.5%. This behavior was successfully attributed to a dose per frame effect, i.e., a nonlinear relationship between the EPID signal and the dose which was delivered to the panel between two successive readouts. The sensitivity was found to vary up to 10% in the range of 1 to 1000 monitor units. This variation was governed by two independent effects. For low doses, the EPID signal was reduced due to the linac's changing dose rate during startup. Furthermore, the detector reading was influenced by intrabeam variations of EPID sensitivity, namely, an increase of detector response during uniform exposure. For the beam qualities which were used, the response characteristics of the EPID did not depend on energy. Differences in relative dose-response curves resulted from energy dependent temporal output characteristics of the accelerator. If ghosting is prevented from affecting the results and all dose-response effects are properly corrected for, the EPID signal becomes independent of dose rate, dose, and exposure time.     

SunCHECK软件在调强放疗计划剂量验证中的应用

目的:探讨SunCHECK软件在调强放疗计划剂量验证中的应用。方法:选取新疆医科大学第一附属医院已执行IMRT计划的40例患者,应用SunCHECK软件,对所接受数据进行单独计算,然后对原始放疗计划和QA计划进行Gamma分析。最后对QA计划与ArcCHECK测量结果进行Gamma通过率比较。结果:在SunCHECK软件单独计算结果中,Monaco计划平均Gamma通过率略高于Eclipse计划。相同计划系统原始计划与QA计划Gamma通过率没有差异。使用SunCHECK软件计算QA计划（包括Monaco计划和Eclipse计划）Gamma通过率略高于ArcCHECK测量结果的Gamma通过率。结论:SunCHECK软件符合IMRT计划剂量验证需要,给放疗质控工作带来了很大的便利性。无论是作为单独放疗计划验算工具,还是以log日志文件反推进行计划验证,都应该把SunCHECK作为质量保证程序的一部分。     

Electron beam treatment verification using measured and Monte Carlo predicted portal images

Electron beam treatments may benefit from techniques to verify patient positioning and dose delivery. This is particularly so for complex techniques such as mixed photon and electron beam radiotherapy and electron beam modulated therapy. This study demonstrates that it is possible to use the bremsstrahlung photons in an electron beam from a dual scattering foil linear accelerator to obtain portal images of electron beam treatments. The possibility of using Monte Carlo (MC) simulations to predict the electron beam treatment portal images was explored. The MC code EGSnrc was used to model a Varian CL21EX linear accelerator (linac) and to characterize the bremsstrahlung photon production in the linac head. It was found that the main sources of photons in the electron beam are the scattering foils, the applicator and the beam-shaping cut-out. Images were acquired using the Varian CL21EX linac and the Varian aS500 electronic portal imager (EPI); four electron energies (6, 9, 12, 16 MeV), and different applicator and cut-out sizes were used. It was possible to acquire images with as little as 10.7 MU per image. The contrast, the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the resolution and an estimate of the modulated transfer function (MTF) of the electron beam portal images were computed using a quality assurance (QA) phantom and were found to be comparable to those of a 6 MV photon beam. Images were also acquired using a Rando anthropomorphic phantom. MC simulations were used to model the aS500 EPID and to obtain predicted portal images of the QA and Rando phantom. The contrast in simulated and measured portal images agrees within +/-5% for both the QA and the Rando phantom. The measured and simulated images allow for a verification of the phantom positioning by making sure that the structure edges are well aligned. This study suggests that the Varian aS500 portal imager can be used to obtain patient portal images of electron beams in the scattering foil linacs.