泛素羧基端水解酶L1在人类疾病发生发展中的调控作用

泛素-蛋白酶系统(ubiquitin proteasome system,UPS)在细胞分裂、细胞信号转导以及细胞程序死亡的过程中起到非常重要的作用.此系统主要是靠泛素化酶和去泛素化酶来实施对于目的蛋白的快速精确调控.其中,泛素羧基端水解酶L1 (ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1,UCH-L1)是去泛素化酶家族中的一个重要的分子,是由223个氨基酸组成的一类半胱氨酸水解酶,通过识另和裂解目标蛋白上羧基末端第76位甘氨酸,可把泛素分子从目标蛋白的多聚泛素化链上切割下来,阻止目标蛋白被UPS系统降解,从而对目标蛋白的降解代谢负向调控.由此而产生游离的泛素单体,则进一步循环参与下一个目标蛋白的泛素化代谢.UCH-L1是一个多功能的分子,除了去泛素化酶功能,还有稳定泛素单体,泛素连接酶及参与细胞骨架蛋白调控,细胞微管形成等多功能作用.     

泛素特异性蛋白酶在病毒感染中的作用

生物体内的泛素化水平通过泛素化酶(泛素激活酶E1、泛素结合酶E2、泛素连接酶E3)和去泛素化酶(deubiquitinating enzymes, DUBs)来平衡。其中泛素特异性蛋白酶(ubiquitin-specific proteases, USPs)是去泛素化酶家族中最大的亚类, 也是细胞内蛋白质降解的重要参与者。USPs通过水解底物蛋白上的泛素分子从而影响或调节多种细胞活动, 包括:基因转录、细胞周期调控、免疫应答、细胞受体功能以及肿瘤生长、炎症过程等。文章对USPs家族部分成员在多种生命活动中的作用做了归纳和总结, 进一步为USPs在病毒感染中的研究提供参考。     

E3泛素连接酶在核转录共抑制因子SnoN蛋白降解中的作用

目前已知泛素-蛋白酶体途径是真核细胞内蛋白降解的主要途径,能选择性降解细胞内多种蛋白（如细胞周期蛋白、蛋白激酶、信号分子等）.其中,E3泛素连接酶因决定了靶蛋白底物的特异性,而成为该途径中起决定作用的关键酶[1].近年研究发现,核转录共抑制因子Ski相关活性蛋白N（SnoN）蛋白的泛素化降解在调控SnoN蛋白表达中起着重要作用[2].表现为多种水平多个环节上的调控,而且这种调控与肿瘤、发育障碍、中枢神经系统疾病、纤维化疾病等密切相关.本文拟对E3泛素连接酶介导SnoN蛋白泛素化的研究进展作一综述.     

去泛素化酶的研究及其进展

泛素-蛋白酶体途径（ubiquitin—proteasome pathway）是细胞内一个重要的蛋白质降解调节系统。通过对底物蛋白的多聚泛素化并经蛋白酶体降解，可以影响或调节多种细胞活动，包括：基因转录、细胞周期调节、免疫反应、细胞受体功能及肿瘤生长、炎症过程等。该途径也是一个被严格调控的可逆过程，其中去泛素化酶的调节就是一个重要的环节。目前研究证实，细胞内广泛存在许多去泛素化酶（deubiquitinating enzymes，DUBs），主要分为以泛素羧基末端水解酶家族和泛素特异性加工酶家族为主的5种类型。     

泛素特异性加工酶2的研究进展

泛素特异性加工酶2(ubiquitin-specific protease 2,USP2)是一种重要的去泛素化酶,通过特异性识别靶蛋白,使靶蛋白去泛素化并阻碍其降解,以调控细胞内靶蛋白数量和活性,从而参与细胞功能的调节.USP2-45及USP2-69是USP2基因选择性剪接而形成的两种不同亚型,在不同组织、细胞和不同发育阶段均有表达,且与细胞周期调控,骨骼肌纵向生长、肌细胞分化、离子通道、生精作用及生物钟调控等关系密切.本文结合当前研究进展,系统阐述USP2的两种亚型的结构、分布及功能,为进一步研究USP2与疾病的关系打下理论基础.     

泛素-蛋白酶体途径及意义

泛素-蛋白酶体途径介导的蛋白降解是机体调节细胞内蛋白水平与功能的一个重要机制。负责执行这个调控过程的组成成分包括泛素及其启动酶系统和蛋白酶体系统。泛素启动酶系统负责活化泛素,并将其结合到待降解的蛋白上,形成靶蛋白多聚泛素链,即泛素化。蛋白酶体系统可以识别已泛素化的蛋白并将其降解。此外,细胞内还有另一类解离泛素链分子的去泛素化蛋白酶形成反向调节。泛素-蛋白酶体途径涉及许多细胞的生理过程,其调节异常与多种疾病的发生有关。     

泛素蛋白酶体碳末端水解酶L3

泛素蛋白酶体碳末端水解酶L3（Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases L3,UCH-L3）是泛素蛋白酶体中碳末端水解酶的一种,可以将泛素分子从底物上水解下来,使得泛素蛋白酶体在细胞内再循环利用。目前对UCH-L3的研究还不充分,近年来发现它在多种疾病中都呈现高表达,可能与多种疾病的发生和发展有一定的联系。     

泛素羧基末端水解酶37

泛素羧基末端水解酶37(ubiquitinC-terminalhydrolase37,UCH37或称UCH-L5)是泛素-蛋白酶体系统中去泛素化酶家族的一员.UCH37与蛋白酶体的一个亚单位19S调节颗粒密切相关,可上调转化生长因子β(transforminggrowthfactor-β,TGF-β)通路并且可抑制细胞凋亡.UCH37在多种肿瘤中有异常表达,在阿尔茨海默症、糖尿病肾病的发病机制中或许也起到一定作用.关于UCH37/USP14抑制剂的研究为抗肿瘤药物提供了一个新靶点.     

E3泛素连接酶β-TrCP1在肿瘤中的研究进展

β-转录重复包含蛋白1(β-transducin repeat containing protein 1,β-TrCP1)是一种E3泛素连接酶的底物识别亚基,能特异性识别泛素化底物,在细胞增殖、信号转导以及细胞周期进程中发挥重要作用。β-TrCP1蛋白表达异常或功能失调常使泛素化修饰异常,影响多种肿瘤的发生、发展。该文现对β-TrCP1在恶性肿瘤中的作用及相关分子机制进行综述。     

去泛素化酶USP33的研究进展

泛素-特异性蛋白酶33(ubiquitin-specific proteases 33, USP33)是去泛素化酶(deubiquitinating enzymes, DUB)家族的重要成员,主要通过对底物蛋白的去泛素化阻止蛋白酶体降解,进而调节细胞内多种生命活动。同时,USP33在不同肿瘤中的特异性可为肿瘤的预防、治疗及预后提供新方向。该文现就USP33在信号通路、自噬、中心体扩增、肿瘤发生、发展中的研究进展进行回顾和综述。     

Linear ubiquitination signals in adaptive immune responses

Ubiquitin can form eight different linkage types of chains using the intrinsic Met 1 residue or one of the seven intrinsic Lys residues. Each linkage type of ubiquitin chain has a distinct three-dimensional topology, functioning as a tag to attract specific signaling molecules, which are so-called ubiquitin readers, and regulates various biological functions. Ubiquitin chains linked via Met 1 in a head-to-tail manner are called linear ubiquitin chains. Linear ubiquitination plays an important role in the regulation of cellular signaling, including the best-characterized tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced canonical nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway. Linear ubiquitin chains are specifically generated by an E3 ligase complex called the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) and hydrolyzed by a deubiquitinase (DUB) called ovarian tumor (OTU) DUB with linear linkage specificity (OTULIN). LUBAC linearly ubiquitinates critical molecules in the TNF pathway, such as NEMO and RIPK1. The linear ubiquitin chains are then recognized by the ubiquitin readers, including NEMO, which control the TNF pathway. Accumulating evidence indicates an importance of the LUBAC complex in the regulation of apoptosis, development, and inflammation in mice. In this article, I focus on the role of linear ubiquitin chains in adaptive immune responses with an emphasis on the TNF-induced signaling pathways.     

The potential roles of deubiquitinating enzymes in brain diseases

Most proteins undergo posttranslational modification such as acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, biotinylation, and ubiquitination to regulate various cellular processes. Ubiquitin-targeted proteins from the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) are degraded by 26S proteasome, along with this, deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) have specific activity against the UPS through detaching of ubiquitin on ubiquitin-targeted proteins. Balancing between protein expression and degradation through interplay between the UPS and DUBs is important to maintain cell homeostasis, and abnormal expression and elongation of proteins lead to diverse diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and autoimmune response. Therefore, development of DUB inhibitors as therapeutic targets has been challenging. In addition, understanding of the roles of DUBs in neurodegeneration, specifically brain diseases, has emerged gradually. This review highlights recent studies on the molecular mechanisms for DUBs, and discusses potential therapeutic targets for DUBs in cases of brain diseases.     

A small molecule deubiquitinase inhibitor increases localization of inducible nitric oxide synthase to the macrophage phagosome and enhances bacterial killing

Macrophages are key mediators of antimicrobial defense and innate immunity. Innate intracellular defense mechanisms can be rapidly regulated at the posttranslational level by the coordinated addition and removal of ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases (DUBs). While ubiquitin ligases have been extensively studied, the contribution of DUBs to macrophage innate immune function is incompletely defined. We therefore employed a small molecule DUB inhibitor, WP1130, to probe the role of DUBs in the macrophage response to bacterial infection. Treatment of activated bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) with WP1130 significantly augmented killing of the intracellular bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. WP1130 also induced killing of phagosome-restricted bacteria, implicating a bactericidal mechanism associated with the phagosome, such as the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). WP1130 had a minimal antimicrobial effect in macrophages lacking iNOS, indicating that iNOS is an effector mechanism for WP1130-mediated bacterial killing. Although overall iNOS levels were not notably different, we found that WP1130 significantly increased colocalization of iNOS with the Listeria-containing phagosome during infection. Taken together, our data indicate that the deubiquitinase inhibitor WP1130 increases bacterial killing in macrophages by enhancing iNOS localization to the phagosome and suggest a potential role for ubiquitin regulation in iNOS trafficking.     

Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-l1 activity induces polyubiquitin accumulation in podocytes and increases proteinuria in rat membranous nephropathy

Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1), a key protease of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), is associated with neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Recently, de novo expression of UCH-L1 was described in podocytes in patients with membranous nephropathy (MN), in which UCH-L1 expression correlated with increased ubiquitin content. The objective of the present study was to investigate the role of UCH-L1 in ubiquitin homeostasis and proteasomal degradation in a rat model of MN. After disease induction, UCH-L1 expression increased in podocytes and coincided with decreased glomerular monoubiquitin content. After an initial increase in proteasomal activity, the UPS was impaired. In addition to an increase of ubiquitin in podocytes, aggregates were observed 1 year after disease induction, as in MN in human beings. Inhibition of UCH-L1 hydrolase function in MN reduced UPS impairment and ameliorated proteinuria. In contrast, inhibition of proteasomal activity enhanced UPS impairment, resulting in increased proteinuria. Stable UCH-L1 overexpression in cultured podocytes resulted in accumulation of monoubiquitin and polyubiquitin proteins. In contrast, stable knock-down of UCH-L1 reduced monoubiquitin and polyubiquitin proteins and significantly increased proteasomal activity, indicating that the observed effects in rat MN also occurred in cultured podocytes. These data demonstrate that UCH-L1 activity results in polyubiquitin accumulation, proteasome inhibition, and disease aggravation in experimental models of MN.     

Ubiquitin is a component of neurofibrillary tangles in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases

Ubiquitin has been shown to be a component of neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease. We now show immunocytochemically that it is also a component of neurofibrillary tangles in several other neurodegenerative diseases of diverse aetiology, including Down's syndrome, dementia pugilistica and postencephalitic parkinsonism, and in normal ageing. Ubiquitin immunoreactivity is not, however, generally found in the neurofibrillary tangles of progressive supranuclear palsy. These findings show that while associated ubiquitin is not a feature unique to the tangles of Alzheimer's disease, it is not simply a non-specific response to the presence of an inclusion body within the cell. The observations suggest that ubiquitin may have an important role in the formation of neurofibrillary tangles in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases.     

Ubiquitin is a common factor in intermediate filament inclusion bodies of diverse type in man, including those of Parkinson's disease, Pick's disease, and Alzheimer's disease, as well as Rosenthal fibres in cerebellar astrocytomas, cytoplasmic bodies in muscle, and mallory bodies in alcoholic liver disease

Polyclonal antibodies were raised which have a high affinity for conjugated ubiquitin. Immunocytochemistry was performed on paraffin sections of tissues showing well-characterized inclusion bodies. Ubiquitin was found as a component of the intermediate filament inclusion bodies characteristic of several major diseases including Lewy bodies of Parkinson's disease, Pick bodies of Pick's disease, Mallory bodies of alcoholic liver disease, cytoplasmic bodies of a specific myopathy, and Rosenthal fibres within astrocytes. Ubiquitin was also present in the three histological lesions characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. These observations suggest a fundamental role for ubiquitin in the formation of intermediate filament inclusion bodies in man, and have implications regarding the pathogenesis of these important diseases.     

Cellular functions regulated by deubiquitinating enzymes in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are one of the most common diseases in mankind. Although there are reports of several candidates that cause neurodegenerative diseases, the exact mechanism of pathogenesis is poorly understood. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is an important posttranslational modification for protein degradation and control of homeostasis. Enzymes such as E1, E2, E3 ligases, and deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) participating in UPS, regulate disease-inducing proteins by controlling the degree of ubiquitination. Therefore, the development of treatments targeting enzymes for degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is emerging as an attractive perspective. In particular, as DUBs are able to regulate one or more degenerative disease-related proteins, the potential as a therapeutic target is even more evident. DUBs influence the regulation of toxic proteins that cause neurodegenerative diseases by not only their removal, but also by regulating signals associated with mitophagy, autophagy, and endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD). In this review, we analyze not only the cellular processes of DUBs, which control neurodegenerative disease-inducing proteins, but also their potentials as a therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases.