Surgical aspects of postpartum haemorrhage

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) refers to excessive bleeding from the genital tract after birth. Failure of medical treatment to control bleeding would necessitate surgical measures to arrest haemorrhage, to save lives. Algorithms such as HAEMOSTASIS have been proposed as aids to the systematic and stepwise management of primary PPH. Clinicians need to be aware of various surgical techniques that could be employed to arrest haemorrhage, the appropriateness of a chosen surgical intervention to the specific clinical situation and the timing of instituting the intervention. Surgical measures to arrest PPH include repair of genital tract trauma, evacuation of retained products of conception, uterine balloon tamponade, exploratory laparotomy and uterine compression sutures, systematic pelvic devascularization, uterine artery embolization, subtotal and total abdominal hysterectomy. Consideration should also be given to the experience and the skill of the operator, as well as to the familiarity with the chosen surgical procedure.     

The surgical management of post-partum haemorrhage

Life-threatening post-partum haemorrhage (PPH) occurs with a frequency of 1 per 1000 deliveries in the developed world. In the 1994-1996 Triennial Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom primary PPH was responsible for five deaths. In this chapter we discuss briefly the assessment and initial medical management of the patient with primary PPH but concentrate on the surgical management where medical treatment has failed. The surgical management discussed includes both traditional or long-established management strategies together with newer, less radical surgical options, such as embolization techniques, uterine compression sutures and methods involving uterine tamponade, which are less hazardous to perform and have the advantage of preserving reproductive function. The recommendations of the reports from the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the UK are summarized at the end of the chapter.     

Management of severe postpartum haemorrhage: an updated protocol

Intractable postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is exceedingly rare. Most complications result from procrastination or lack of adherence to a structured protocol of management. Active management of the third stage of labour is highly effective in preventing PPH. If haemorrhage nevertheless occurs, the following measures are implemented in rapid succession until the bleeding stops: 1) methylergometrine maleate is administered, 2) the uterus is massaged and compressed, 3) oxytocin is infused intravenously, 4) a second intravenous line is installed and blood is drawn for determination of the haematocrit, platelets and coagulation profile, and for cross-matching of blood, 5) a senior obstetrician and a senior anaesthetist are summoned, and the haematologist on call is notified, 6) the patient’s condition is monitored to identify any change in her condition, 7) the blood lost is initially replaced by crystalloids, then by packed red blood cells, when available; fresh frozen plasma and platelets are administered at intervals, and cryoprecipitate for correction of hypo-fibrinogenaemia, 8) while the above measures are in progress, the genital tract is examined. Retained secundines, lacerations, placenta accreta, uterine inversion and uterine rupture each require specific treatment. In the absence of these complications and of consumption coagulopathy, persistent bleeding is most frequently due to uterine hypotony. Less often, it originates from the implantation area of a placenta praevia, in which case it can be brought under control by placement of two vertical compression sutures, bringing the anterior and posterior walls of the lower segment in close contact with each other. Treatment of hypotonic haemorrhage consists sequentially of: 1) intramyometrial injection of 15-methyl-prostaglandin F₂α, 2) rinsing of the uterine cavity with saline at 50°C, 3) inflation of a hydrostatic balloon in the uterus, 4) for bleeding of moderate intensity: selective angiographic catheterisation for either occlusion of the anterior division of the hypogastric arteries with inflatable balloons or embolisation of more distal vessels, 5) for a more severe haemorrhage: transvaginal ligation of the uterine arteries, 6) laparotomy and ligation of the uterine arteries at their lower (if not done transvaginally) and upper ends or, alternatively, of the anterior branch of the hypogastric arteries, 7) alternatively or complementarily, placement of compressive uterine sutures, 8) as last resort, hysterectomy, 9) for persistent bleeding after hysterectomy: tamponade with a pelvic pack, 10) for transportation to the hospital or as a life-saving measure after failure of other treatments: application of an anti-shock garment.     

Management of massive postpartum haemorrhage: use of a hydrostatic balloon catheter to avoid laparotomy

Postpartum haemorrhage remains a significant complication of childbirth in the UK and worldwide. The most common cause of postpartum haemorrhage is uterine atony, but placent accreta is becoming more frequent. In these situations tamponade may be required. The successful use of the inflated stomach balloon (300ml) of a Sengstaken–Blakemore tube has been reported previously. We describe an innovative method of 'tamponade' which is simple and effective, using the Rüsch urological hydrostatic balloon catheter. In two cases of failed medical therapy for PPH, where the catheter has been tried, further surgical interventions have been avoided.     

Second-line treatment of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH)

Introduction

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) remains to be the most common cause of maternal mortality and is responsible for 25?% of the maternal deaths worldwide. Although the absolute risk of maternal death is much lower, a recent increase of PPH and related maternal adverse outcomes has been noted in high-income countries as well. Generally, PPH requires early recognition of its cause, immediate control of the bleeding source by medical, mechanical, invasive-non-surgical and surgical procedures, rapid stabilization of the mother??s condition, and a multidisciplinary approach. Second-line treatment of PPH remains challenging, since there is a lack of univocal recommendations from current guidelines and sufficient data from randomized controlled trials.

Materials

For this review, electronic searches were performed in PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials using the keywords ??postpartum haemorrhage?? in combination with ??uterine tamponade?? and, especially with ??arterial embolisation??, ??uterine compression sutures??, and ??post(peri)partum hysterectomy?? (from January 2000 to November 2011). Reference lists of identified articles were searched and article references to the keywords selected.

Results

Treatment options such as uterine compression sutures, embolisation, arterial ligation and hysterectomy were evaluated with regard to their prerequisites, benefits, drawbacks and respective success rate. In addition, a treatment algorithm for the second-line treatment of PPH is presented.     

The use of the Rusch balloon for management of severe postpartum haemorrhage.

Tamponade techniques using a uterine balloon in management of postpartum haemorrhage has been reported increasingly in recent years. The aim of this retrospective study is to evaluate the use of the Rusch hydrostatic balloon in the management of severe postpartum haemorrhage not controlled by medical measures. All women had risk factors for PPH. The Rusch balloon was used in all cases of PPH apart from traumatic PPH, which is considered as a contraindication for its use. The Rusch balloon was successful in seven out of the eight cases treated. We have introduced guidelines for using the Rusch balloon and they are provided in this paper.     

Post-partum haemorrhage from the lower uterine segment secondary to placenta praevia/accreta: successful conservative management with Foley balloon tamponade

Profuse bleeding from the lower uterine segment secondary to placenta praevia/accreta during caesarean delivery is a challenging problem in obstetrics. We present our experiences using intrauterine Foley balloon tamponade for the conservative management of post-partum haemorrhage from the lower uterine segment. Intraoperative haemostasis was achieved in all women who were unresponsive to other conservative methods. Foley balloon tamponade may be considered in the management of lower uterine segment bleeding at caesarean delivery.     

Use of Bakri balloon in post-partum haemorrhage: A series of 15 cases

Background: Post-partum haemorrhage (PPH) is a major complication of delivery. Hysterectomy is commonly performed when medical treatment of PPH fails. We assessed the effectiveness of Bakri balloon tamponade, a non-surgical technique in the management of PPH.
Aim(s): Our objective is to report our experience in the use of Bakri balloon in treating PPH.
Method: A retrospective study of 15 patients who underwent Bakri balloon insertion after unsuccessful medical management of PPH.
Results: Fifteen cases of PPH were managed with Bakri balloon insertion. It was effective in all cases of PPH after vaginal delivery and in four cases of caesarean section; the overall effectiveness was 80%.
Conclusion: Insertion of Bakri balloon is a simple alternative procedure in the management of PPH. It should be consider before any further surgical intervention including hysterectomy. Junior doctors and midwives can effectively apply it. It can be used during transfer or while waiting for a surgical procedure to reduce blood loss.     

Postpartum ultrasound: postpartum assessment using ultrasonography

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a potential cause of maternal mortality, and obstetricians must be prepared to rapidly diagnose and treat this condition. Optimal treatment is dependent upon the underlying cause of haemorrhage. Ultrasonography is the most helpful tool for prompt diagnosis of PPH aetiology and obstetricians must have a strong understanding of postpartum ultrasonography. In our previous report, we demonstrated the utility of ultrasonography using the focused assessment with sonography for obstetrics (FASO) technique (a modified version of FAST) as the primary postpartum obstetric survey. In the present article, we review the ultrasonographic findings of PPH, differentiated by the underlying cause of haemorrhage, including retained placenta, morbidly adherent placenta, uterine rupture, uterine inversion and uterine artery abnormalities.     

产后出血的保守性手术治疗

产后出血是分娩期常见而且严重的并发症,在药物和子宫按摩不能控制出血时,需采取手术干预。保守性手术是指保留子宫的手术方法,包括血管结扎、宫腔填塞压迫止血、子宫压迫缝合等。B-Lynch缝合技术在产后出血的保守性手术治疗中具有里程碑式的意义,并且由此改良出多种子宫压迫缝合方法。这些技术各有利弊和不同的适应证,根据产后出血的不同原因选择合适的保守性手术方式,才能达到良好止血和减少并发症的目的。     

Massive obstetric haemorrhage with disseminated intravascular coagulopathy

Massive obstetric haemorrhage is a major contributor towards maternal morbidity and mortality. The main causes are abruptio placentae, placenta praevia and postpartum haemorrhage. Clinicians managing pregnant women should be equipped with the knowledge and skills for managing massive obstetric haemorrhage to institute timely and appropriate life-saving treatment. Prompt resuscitation and reversal of coagulopathy are critical while definitive measures are carried out to arrest the bleeding. Massive antepartum haemorrhage necessitates deliveries whereas interventions for postpartum haemorrhage range from medical to surgical measures. Algorithms such as haemostasis are useful aids to the systematic and stepwise management of postpartum haemorrhage. Surgical measures used to avoid peripartum haemorrhage include uterine compression sutures, uterine balloon tamponade, uterine artery, and internal iliac artery ligation. Tranexamic acid and recombinant factor VII are more recent medical interventions in massive postpartum haemorrhage. Education, regular drills and adherence to guidelines and protocols are important to reduce haemorrhage-related maternal deaths.     

Medical and Conservative Surgical Management of Postpartum Hemorrhage

Massive postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a major cause of maternal mortality in the United Kingdom and worldwide. Life-threatening PPH occurs with a frequency of I in 1000 deliveries in the developed world. In the latest triennial Why Mothers Die: Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom (1997–1999), PPH was the fifth most common cause of maternal mortality. In this review, we discuss the role of medical management in primary PPH and the use of the “tamponade test” when such management fails. The less radical surgical options discussed include uterine compression sutures, uterine or internal iliac artery ligation, and arterial embolization, all of which have the advantage of potentially preserving reproductive function. Radical surgical options, including subtotal or total hysterectomy, are not discussed in this review. A systematic or algorithmic method of tackling the problem is described. The suggested management approach is likely to reduce maternal morbidity from bleeding, hysterectomies, and maternal deaths.     

Internal iliac artery ligation for arresting postpartum haemorrhage

OBJECTIVE: To study the role of internal iliac artery ligation (IIAL) in arresting and preventing postpartum haemorrhage (PPH). DESIGN: Retrospective chart review of women undergoing therapeutic IIAL for PPH or prophylactic IIAL for risk of PPH. SETTING: Tertiary care hospital in Pune, India. SAMPLE: Women admitted to King Edward Memorial (KEM) Hospital, Pune, India, who underwent IIAL to control or prevent PPH. METHODS: Bilateral IIAL was performed in all women. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Need for re-laparotomy or hysterectomy to control haemorrhage, complications of the procedure. RESULTS: Out of 110 women who underwent IIAL, 88 had therapeutic IIAL for PPH from atony (36), genital tract injury (23), placenta praevia (21), placental abruption (4), uterine inversion (3) or coagulopathy (1). Hysterectomy was performed after IIAL failed to arrest haemorrhage in 33 (39.3%) of 84 women (excluding 4 with vaginal lacerations). Hysterectomy was more likely with uterine rupture (79%) than with nontraumatic PPH (up to 27%). Failure to control haemorrhage by IIAL was evident immediately, and bleeding arrested by IIAL did not recur to require later laparotomy in any woman. Out of 22 women at high risk for PPH undergoing prophylactic IIAL at caesarean section, none had subsequent haemorrhage. One woman had an iliac vein injury that was repaired with no further morbidity. There were no ischaemic complications either during inpatient stay or up to 6 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: IIAL is useful in the treatment and prevention of PPH from any cause. Early resort to IIAL effectively prevents hysterectomy in women with atonic PPH. In traumatic PPH, IIAL facilitates hysterectomy or repair as indicated and prevents reactionary haemorrhage.     

A new uterine compression suture for postpartum haemorrhage with atony

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a major cause of worldwide maternal mortality and is still associated with significant morbidity. After the B-Lynch suture was reported in 1997, several different uterine compression sutures were found to be successful in controlling PPH. In this paper, we describe another simple variation of the uterine compression suture technique, which was performed without an incision in the uterine wall, without entering the uterine cavity and without suturing the anterior and posterior walls of the uterus together, so minimising the trauma to the uterus. This new uterine compression suture is an effective and safe surgical treatment for PPH caused by atony. It has the potential to apply to intractable PPH after vaginal delivery.     

COMOC-MG Stitch: Modification of B-Lynch Suturing Technique to Control Atonic Post-partum Haemorrhage

The COMOC-MG (Compression Of Myometrium and OCclusion of uterine artery by Dr. Mahesh Gupta), a modified B-Lynch stitch technique, utilized polyglycolic acid double strand suture with 80 mm long straight taper point and 50 mm half circle round bodied needle. Its dual action of causing hemostatic compression as well as reduced uterine blood flow, in managing PPH is exemplified using 3 cases. The COMOC-MG stitch technique was found to be effective, with fewer complications, in controlling post-partum haemorrhage (PPH). One subsequent full-term pregnancy occurred after 6 years of this surgery. The COMOC-MG stitch technique is a valuable and safe alternative to B-Lynch or other modified B-Lynch suturing techniques for successful management of atonic PPH, while preserving fertility.     

Secondary postpartum hemorrhage due to uterine artery pseudoaneurysm rupture in von Willebrand disease

We here report a case of a 33-year-old woman who experienced secondary postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) due to uterine artery pseudoaneurysm rupture. She had intrauterine balloon tamponade for unexplained primary PPH after spontaneous vaginal delivery, and subsequent angiography showed no abnormal contrast extravasation. However, profuse vaginal bleeding occurred 22 days postpartum. Color Doppler ultrasonography demonstrated an anechoic mass with turbulent flow in the lower uterine segment, corresponding to uterine artery pseudoaneurysm. She was successfully treated with selective uterine arterial embolization. Decreased levels of von Willebrand factor and factor VIII led to the diagnosis of von Willebrand disease. When it is determined that a patient has unexplained PPH or uterine artery pseudoaneurysm, a high index of suspicion and further investigation for underlying bleeding disorders is warranted.     

Major postpartum haemorrhage.

Postpartum haemorrhage remains in the top five causes of maternal deaths in both developed and developing countries. Persistent blood loss of more than 1000 ml should prompt predetermined measures to achieve resuscitation and haemostasis. A protocol including guidelines is given and volume replacement is discussed. The range of medical and surgical interventions that may be considered for the modern management of major haemorrhage unresponsive to oxytocin and ergometrine are presented. The review discusses in depth the use of misoprostol, recombinant activated factor VII, the uterine tamponade procedures, artery ligation, and uterine haemostatic suturing techniques. It also evaluates the place of interventional radiology and hysterectomy in modern obstetrics.     

Bakri balloon versus condom-loaded Foley’s catheter for treatment of atonic postpartum hemorrhage secondary to vaginal delivery: a randomized controlled trial

Objective: To assess the efficacy and safety of condom-loaded Foley’s catheter versus Bakri Balloon in the management of primary atonic post partum hemorrhage (PPH) secondary to vaginal delivery.

Study design: This study was single blinded randomized controlled trial conducted at Assiut Woman’s Health Hospital, Egypt in the period between October 2014 and December 2015. It Comprised 66 women with primary atonic PPH following vaginal delivery. Eligible participants were randomly assigned to Bakri balloon (group A) or condom-loaded Foley’s catheter (group B). The primary outcome was the success of tamponade to stop the uterine bleeding without additional surgical interventions. Secondary outcomes included time between insertion and stoppage of the bleeding, the amount of blood transfusion and maternal complications.

Results: Both treatment modalities successfully controlled the primary atonic PPH without a statistically significant difference [30/33(91.0%) and 28/33(84.84%), p?=?.199; respectively]. However; Bakri balloon required shorter time to stop the uterine bleeding (9.09?min vs. 11.76?min, p?=?.042; respectively). There was no statistically significant difference between both groups regarding postpartum maternal complications, the vital signs, urine output, hemoglobin and hematocrit levels from before to after tamponade insertion.

Conclusions: Condom-loaded Foley’s catheter is as effective as Bakri balloon in the management of primary atonic PPH following vaginal delivery but requires a significant bit longer time to stop the attack.     

Uterine tamponade using condom catheter balloon in the management of non-traumatic postpartum hemorrhage

Aim: To study the efficacy and complications of uterine tamponade using condom catheter balloon in non-traumatic postpartum hemorrhage (PPH). Material and Methods: This prospective study was conducted in a tertiary care teaching hospital in India. Eighteen patients with non-traumatic PPH not responding to medical management were included in the study. Uterine tamponade was achieved by a condom catheter balloon filled with saline and kept in situ for 8-48?h. The main outcome measures were success rate in controlling hemorrhage, time required to stop bleeding, subsequent morbidity and technical difficulties. Data was analyzed using appropriate statistical methods. Results: The success rate of condom catheter balloon in controlling hemorrhage was 94%. The mean amount of fluid filled in the condom catheter balloon was 409?mL. The average time taken to control bleeding was 6.2?min. The mean duration for which condom catheter balloon was left in situ was 27.5?h. The average amount of blood loss was 1330?mL. Five patients (28%) had infective morbidity. Conclusion: Condom catheter balloon is effective in controlling non-traumatic PPH in 94% cases. It is effective, simple to use, easily available and is a cheap modality to manage non-traumatic postpartum hemorrhage, especially in limited resource settings.     

Uterine packing versus Foley’s catheter for the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage secondary to bleeding tendency in low-resource setting: A four-year observational study

Objective: To assess the effectiveness and safety of uterine packing versus Foley’s catheter tamponade for controlling postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) secondary to bleeding tendency after vaginal delivery.

Methods: This was a prospective observational study conducted on 92 patients with primary PPH due to bleeding tendency following vaginal delivery who were unresponsive to uterotonics and bimanual compression of the uterus. Patients were divided into two groups, Uterine packing group (n?=?45) and Foley catheter group (n?=?47). The primary outcome was the success rate of the procedure. Secondary outcome addressed the maternal complications.

Results: The use of uterine packing resulted in stoppage of active bleeding in 93.3% of cases compared to only 68.1% in the Foley’s catheter group (p?p?>?0.05). Six cases who failed to Foley catheter tamponade underwent emergency hysterectomy with no cases in the uterine packing group.

Conclusions: The use of uterine packing to arrest PPH is simple, quick and safe procedure to avoid further surgical interventions and to preserve the fertility in low-resource setting.