Trimester-specific blood pressure levels in relation to maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index

We evaluated the influence of maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), based on reported pre-pregnancy weight and height, on blood pressure (BP) levels during pregnancy by using information from a prospective cohort of 1733 women recruited before 20 weeks' gestation. Maternal antenatal BP values were abstracted from medical records, and we evaluated the mean BP differences according to BMI group in regression models, using generalised estimating equations to account for repeated BP records within each pregnancy. In each trimester, mean systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) values were positively associated with maternal pre-gestational BMI. This association persisted after adjustment for maternal age, parity, smoking, education, marital status and physical activity. Overweight women (25-29 kg/m(2)) had first-, second- and third-trimester mean SBPs that were 8.1, 7.7 and 8.2 mmHg, respectively, higher than values observed in lean women (<20 kg/m(2)). Mean DBP values were 4.5, 5.4 and 5.6 mmHg higher for each successive trimester in overweight vs. lean women. Obese (>30 kg/m(2)) women consistently had the highest mean SBP and DBP values. Trimester-specific mean SBP values were 10.7-12.0 mmHg higher among obese women vs. lean women. Corresponding trimester-specific mean DBP values were 6.9-7.4 mmHg higher in obese vs. lean women. Similar patterns were observed when trimester-specific average mean arterial pressures were evaluated. Elevated pregnancy BPs associated with maternal pre-gestational BMI are consistent with a large body of literature that documents increased pre-eclampsia risk among overweight and obese women.     

Relationship between pre-pregnancy BMI and plasma zinc concentrations in early pregnancy

We previously reported that pregnant women whose plasma Zn concentrations were below the 50th percentile tended to have high pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m(2)) values. We therefore hypothesized that in pregnant women, plasma Zn concentrations are negatively correlated with BMI. We evaluated the association between BMI values and plasma Zn concentrations in 1474 women whose blood samples were obtained before 15 weeks of gestation. Their mean age was 22.7 years and mean gestational age at blood sampling was 10 weeks. The mean plasma Zn concentration and BMI were 11.6 micromol/l and 26.6 kg/m(2) respectively. Because plasma Zn concentrations decrease as gestational age increases, plasma Zn concentrations were standardized by Z-scores. Z-score distributions were compared among the quartiles of BMI. The highest BMI group had the lowest plasma Zn concentrations, whereas the lowest BMI group had the highest; the differences were significant between the BMI groups (P<0.0001). The interpretation of plasma Zn concentrations to assess Zn nutriture in pregnancy may be complicated not only by the well-established factor of gestational age at blood sampling, but also by a previously unrecognized factor, maternal BMI.     

妊娠糖尿病与孕期体质指数和妊娠结局的相关性

目的 探讨妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）对孕期体质指数（BMI）及妊娠结局的影响. 方法 通过孕妇每次产检进行问卷跟踪调查,收集孕产妇的一般人口信息、孕产史、孕期体重（孕早、中、晚三个时期）、血糖值、血压值及分娩期情况,共622份,有效问卷553份,按GDM诊断标准分为正常组（193份）和GDM组（360份）,比较妊娠期糖尿病对孕妇BMI及胎儿的影响. 结果 两组年龄、分娩次数和孕前BMI差异无统计学意义;GDM组孕早期、孕中期和孕晚期BMI分别为（22.97±2.29） kg/cm^2、（26.27 ±2.63） kg/cm^2、（28.99 ±3.12） kg/cm^2,均高于正常组;两组剖宫产率和婴儿出生体重差异无统计学意义. 结论 妊娠糖尿病对孕期体重有影响,但未发现对妊娠结局有影响.     

不同健康教育方式对正常孕妇体重指数及妊娠结局的影响

目的:探讨孕前正常的孕妇通过孕妇学校或门诊定时查体不同健康教育模式对中晚期体重指数及妊娠结局的影响。方法:孕16周前在该院产科门诊建档的单胎初产孕妇400例,随机双盲均分为孕妇学校健康教育组(A组)和单纯定期门诊检查指导组(B组),对比观察自孕20周起每妊娠月体重指数(BMI)变化与妊娠结局相关指标的相关性。结果:BMI两组孕妇孕前、孕20周时相近(P>0.05);A组孕24周开始即显著低于B组(P<0.05),孕28周至孕38周则有极显著差异(P<0.01)。A组正常产、阴道助产、过期妊娠及新生儿出生体重等虽低于B组但差异无显著性,而剖宫产、妊娠期高血压疾病(HDCP)、妊娠期糖尿病、巨大胎儿等高危妊娠及妊娠结局相关指标均显著低于B组(P<0.05),其中HDCPA组极显著低于B组(P<0.01)。结论:通过孕妇学校动态孕期健康教育进行体重指数调控有助于降低孕期疾病发生,获得满意的妊娠结局。     

Does low maternal blood pressure during pregnancy increase the risk of perinatal death?

BACKGROUND: A recent report described an association between low maximum diastolic blood pressure (DBP) during pregnancy and perinatal death (stillbirth and death in the first week combined). The authors did not account for gestational length, a strong predictor of perinatal death. METHODS: We studied 41,089 singleton pregnancies from the U.S. Collaborative Perinatal Project (1959-1966). RESULTS: We observed an association between low maximum DBP and elevated risk of perinatal death. However, this association disappeared after accounting for reverse causation related to gestational length. At any given gestational week, women whose offspring ultimately experienced perinatal death did not have significantly lower maximum DBP than women whose offspring survived the perinatal period. When accounting for the trend of increasing DBP during late pregnancy through gestational-age-specific DBP standardized score, we saw no association between low diastolic blood pressure and perinatal death. CONCLUSIONS: Low maximum maternal DBP during pregnancy is a post hoc correlate of perinatal death, not a true risk factor.     

孕周别体重和体质指数分析

目的 建立孕周别体重和体质指数（BMI）参考值范围,探讨其孕期变化规律. 方法 对2009年6月—2011年5月在北京市顺义区医院和顺义区妇幼保健院进行第1次产前检查（9周≤孕周＜14周）的孕妇进行间隔为5（±1）周的定期随访至分娩,采用偏度-中位数-变异系数法修匀其孕期体重和BMI百分位数,并探讨其每周环比增长规律. 结果 获得顺义区孕周别体重和BMI修匀百分位数,二者随孕周增加呈现直线增长的趋势,孕期体重和BMI每周环比增长曲线变化规律相似,均在13周时开始上升,24周后缓慢下降,32 ～38周平稳,体重每周环比增长曲线38周之后又缓慢升高,BMI则保持平坦. 结论 本研究建立了北京市顺义区孕周别体重和BMI百分位数修匀曲线,可为该地区及其它类似地区的孕妇孕期增重和营养评价提供新的参考依据.     

城市女性孕期体重增重的影响因素分析

目的 了解城市女性在孕中晚期体重增重趋势及其相关因素,为孕妇合理控制体重提供科学依据。方法 采用历史性队列研究的方法,调查于2015年在北京市某三甲医院建档产检并生产的孕妇1 176例,采用病案查询法获取孕妇的一般情况,以及建档时(孕6~8周)、孕16、20、24、28、32、36周及分娩当天体重数据。通过分析孕妇体重增幅及增重速度,以了解妊娠期体重增重的趋势及其相关影响因素。结果 本次调查提示调查对象孕期总增重(13.8±4.3)kg,增重速度(周增重)从孕24周后递减,孕中期高于孕晚期。孕期增重与基础体质指数(BMI)密切相关,基础超重/肥胖组孕期总增重[(11.8±4.6)kg]及增速(周增重)明显低于低体重组[(14.1±3.3)kg]和正常组[(13.9±3.9)kg],差异有统计学意义(P<0.05),其中超重/肥胖组增速整体较平缓。参考美国医学研究所(IOM,2009)标准,41.2%调查对象孕期增重适宜,23.3%增重不足,34.5%增重过多;基础低体重组孕期易增重不足比例较高(31.7%),而超重/肥胖孕妇易增重过多(58.6%)。分娩年龄≥35岁组的孕妇体重增幅低于年龄＜35岁组,但变化趋势差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05),不同年龄组孕妇各孕周体重增速均呈递减趋势,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.001),其中年龄≥35岁组增速变化平缓(P＞0.05)。经产妇体重增幅低于初产妇(P＜0.05),但两组体重增速差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05)。多因素分析显示孕期增重与怀孕年龄、基础BMI、分娩孕周有关,方程为Y=9.027-0.114X₁-0.258X₂+0.352X₄。结论 孕妇孕中期增重高于孕晚期,孕期总增重与基础体质指数密切相关。     

Healthy pregnant women in Canada are consuming more dietary protein at 16- and 36-week gestation than currently recommended by the Dietary Reference Intakes,primarily from dairy food sources

Adequate dietary protein intake throughout pregnancy is essential to ensure healthy fetal development. Insufficient and excessive maternal dietary protein intakes are both associated with intrauterine growth restriction, resulting in low birth weight infants. The aim of this study was to analyze the dietary protein intake patterns of healthy pregnant women in Vancouver, British Columbia, during early and late gestation. We hypothesized that women would be consuming higher protein during late stages of pregnancy compared with early stages of pregnancy. Interviewer-administered food frequency questionnaires were collected prospectively from 270 women at 16- and 36-week gestation; food frequency questionnaires from 212 women met study criteria. Maternal anthropometrics at both stages and infant weight at birth were collected. Wilcoxon signed rank tests were used to determine significant gestational differences in protein intakes. Spearman correlation was used to determine the influence of protein intakes and maternal anthropometrics on pregnancy outcomes. Median (25th and 75th percentiles) protein intakes adjusted for body weight were 1.5 (1.18 and 1.79) and 1.3 (1.04 and 1.60) g/kg per day at 16- than 36-week gestation, respectively. Primary protein sources were identified as dairy products. Protein intakes were negatively correlated with birth weight (P < .05), whereas maternal height, weight, body mass index, and weight gain to 36-week gestation were positively correlated with birth weight (P < .05). This study provides current dietary protein intake patterns among healthy Canadian women during pregnancy and indicates higher intakes than current Dietary Reference Intakes recommended dietary allowance of 1.1 g/kg per day, especially during early gestation.     

妊娠期糖代谢异常相关因素调查分析

目的：探讨妊娠期糖代谢异常发病的高危因素,为制定有效干预措施提供科学依据。方法采用前瞻性对照研究方法,收集2011年4至9月在珠海市妇幼保健院产科门诊行产前检查诊断的糖代谢异常孕妇（研究组）共108例,其中妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）75例、妊娠糖耐量异常（GIGT）33例;收集同期糖代谢正常孕妇91例（对照组）,对两组孕妇的临床资料进行单因素及多因素回归分析,探讨各因素对妊娠期糖代谢异常发病的影响。结果一般情况分析显示,糖代谢异常孕妇年龄、孕前身体质量指数（ BMI）、孕期体重增长、孕次及产次均大于正常孕妇（ t 值分别为-6．567、-4．818、-1．929、-3．231、-3．270,均P＜0．05）;糖代谢异常孕妇高中以下文化程度的比例较对照组高,差异有统计学意义（χ^2＝5．642,P＜0．05）。单因素分析发现,孕次、产次、文化程度、年龄≥30岁、孕前BMI≥24kg/m^2、糖尿病家族史、不良孕产史、高脂血症、反复发生霉菌性阴道炎（ VCC）、孕期大量甜食、孕期大量水果、孕期锻炼等因素与糖代谢异常的发生相关。多因素Logistic回归分析表明,孕期大量甜食、孕期大量水果、糖尿病家族史、孕前BMI≥24kg/m^2、VCC、年龄≥30岁、孕期锻炼7个因素进入主效应模型,其中孕期锻炼为保护性因素,其他为危险因素。结论不合理饮食、糖尿病家族史、孕前超重、年龄≥30岁、反复发生霉菌性阴道炎为影响妊娠期糖代谢异常发生的高危因素,孕期锻炼为保护性因素。对存在高危因素的妇女在产前检查时应加强监护和指导。     

Offspring’s blood pressure and metabolic phenotype after exposure to gestational hypertension in utero

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of de novo hypertension in pregnancy, i.e. gestational (non-proteinuric) hypertension (GH) and preeclampsia (PE), on the long-term metabolic outcome of the offspring. Data was obtained from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 (NFBC 1986), including 9,362 pregnancies and subsequent births between 1985 and 1986. Pregnancies were categorised into three groups: (1) GH with blood pressure (BP) ≥ 140/90 mmHg, (2) PE with BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg and proteinuria, and (3) reference group with normal BP. The final study population included 331 offspring of mothers with GH, 197 with PE and 5,045 offspring of normotensive mothers. The main outcome measures were systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP), body mass index (BMI), and serum lipid, glucose and insulin levels of the 16 year-old offspring. The children of mothers with GH had higher BP compared to the reference group (SBP percentage difference 2.7 (95 % CI 1.6, 3.8); DBP 3.4 (2.1, 4.6); MAP 3.1 (2.0, 4.1), P < 0.001 for all) and a tendency towards higher cholesterol and apolipoprotein B values. The offspring of mothers with PE had higher DBP and MAP, however after the adjustments this difference disappeared. Maternal de novo hypertension during pregnancy is associated with offspring’s elevated blood pressure level already in adolescence. GH may also be associated with unfavourable lipid profile of the offspring.     

Pre-Pregnancy Body Mass Index and Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Relations with Gestational Diabetes and Hypertension, and Birth Outcomes

To study the relationship between pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and weight gain during pregnancy with pregnancy and birth outcomes, with a focus on gestational diabetes and hypertension and their role in the association with fetal growth. We studied 1,884 mothers and offspring from the Eden mother–child cohort. Weight before pregnancy (W1) and weight after delivery (W2) were collected and we calculated BMI and net gestational weight gain (netGWG = (W2 − W1)/(weeks of gestation)). Gestational diabetes, hypertension gestational age and birth weight were collected. We used multivariate linear or logistic models to study the association between BMI, netGWG and pregnancy and birth outcomes, adjusting for center, maternal age and height, parity and average number of cigarettes smoked per day during pregnancy. High BMI was more strongly related to the risk of giving birth to a large-for-gestational-age (LGA) baby than high netGWG (odds ratio OR [95% CI] of 3.23 [1.86–5.60] and 1.61 [0.91–2.85], respectively). However, after excluding mothers with gestational diabetes or hypertension the ORs for LGA, respectively weakened (OR 2.57 [1.29–5.13]) for obese women and strengthened for high netGWG (OR 2.08 [1.14–3.80]). Low in comparison to normal netGWG had an OR of 2.18 [1.20–3.99] for pre-term birth, which became stronger after accounting for blood pressure and glucose disorders (OR 2.70 [1.37–5.34]). Higher net gestational weight gain was significantly associated with an increased risk of LGA only after accounting for blood pressure and glucose disorders. High gestational weight gain should not be neglected in regard to risk of LGA in women without apparent risk factors.     

孕前体重指数及其孕期增加对妊娠结局的影响

目的:定量评价孕前体重指数及孕期体重指数增加情况对我国北方孕妇妊娠结局的影响。方法:收集2007～2009年在沈阳3家医院分娩的3741名单胎妊娠初产妇,按照孕前体重指数(BMI)分为4组:低体重组(BMI18.5kg/m2)、正常体重组(18.5kg/m2≤BMI24kg/m2)、超重组(24kg/m2≤BMI28kg/m2)和肥胖组(BMI≥28kg/m2)。按照孕期BMI增加情况分为3组:A组(BMI增加4)、B组(BMI增加4～6)、C组(BMI增加6)。Logistic回归评估不良妊娠结局的危险度,结果用RR和95%CI表示。结果:①和正常体重组相比,孕前低体重、超重和肥胖组的孕妇患子痫前期的RR分别为0.53(95%CI0.29～0.97)、2.84(95%CI2.05～3.94)和5.35(95%CI3.47～8.49);患妊娠期糖尿病的RR分别为0.35(95%CI0.16～0.78)、3.40(95%CI2.44～4.75)和4.95(95%CI2.91～7.06);剖宫产和出生大于胎龄儿(LGA)的风险也随孕前体重的增加而增加。②和B组相比,C组增加了子痫前期(RR1.85,95%CI1.40～2.44)、妊娠期糖尿病(RR1.39,95%CI1.05～1.86)、剖宫产(RR1.37,95%CI1.15～1.63)及出生LGA(RR1.98,95%CI1.44～2.73)的相对危险性,但降低了出生SGA的风险。A组降低了子痫前期、剖宫产和出生LGA的风险,但增加了早产(34周)和出生SGA的风险。结论:孕前体重指数过高及孕期体重指数增加过度可以明显增加孕妇子痫前期、妊娠期糖尿病和剖宫产的风险。应加强健康教育,适度控制孕期体重,合理营养减少肥胖,对预防妊娠并发症,改善妊娠结局是有必要的。     

Adolescents with adequate birth weight newborns diminish energy expenditure and cease growth

Maternal energy requirements increase during pregnancy but the magnitude of this increment is unknown among adolescents. We determined the effects of maternal age and weight status on adjustments in gestational weight gain, resting energy expenditure (REE), and growth among adolescents. Weight, and growth rates of pregnant adolescents (PA) < or =17 y during late pregnancy were compared with changes in nonpregnant adolescents (NPA) over a 5-mo period. REE was also measured monthly in the PA group. Paired t-tests and general linear models for repeated measures were used for the analysis; height was included as a confounding variable. Weight, height, and BMI of the PA and NPA women did not differ at baseline. During the follow-up period, NPA grew 0.94 +/- 30 cm; growth rate was greater in adolescents < or =14 y of age (P < 0.001) than in the older subjects. No growth occurred in the PA group. REE tended to increase linearly between 20 and 36 wk of gestation (P = 0.164); the net change in women >14 y (25%) tended (P = 0.164) to be greater than that of younger adolescents (7%). The mean increment of REE from wk 20 to wk 36 was 230 +/- 30 kcal/d (962 +/- 126 kJ/d) and the smallest increase occurred in women with BMI <20 (P = 0.010). Women with BMI <20 had a decrease in REE/kg that was greater than that of normal weight (BMI 20-25) or overweight (BMI > or =25) women (within subject, P = 0.010; between subject, P = 0.001). In conclusion, PA appear to adjust their resting energy needs by ceasing growth.     

Second Trimester Insulin Resistance,Early Pregnancy Body Mass Index and Gestational Weight Gain

Objectives Because prior work suggests an association between high insulin concentrations in early pregnancy and excess gestational weight gain, we examined such associations in a prospective cohort. Methods Multivariate regression analysis of early pregnancy insulin homeostasis and gestational weight gain among 434 women enrolled in the MGH Obstetrical Maternal Study. Results We found that the association between insulin quartile and gestational weight gain varied depending on maternal body mass index (BMI) in early pregnancy (P for interaction <0.0001). Among women with a BMI of 20, high fasting insulin was associated with greater gestational weight gain (multivariate-adjusted predicted mean 39.6, 95% CI 30.9–40.3 lbs for Quartile 4 (Q4) vs. 31.3, 95% CI 28.6–34.1 lbs for Q1) and higher risk of excessive weight gain. By contrast, among women with a BMI of 35, higher fasting insulin was associated with lower total gain (multivariate-adjusted predicted mean 25.7, 95% CI 22.6–28.7 lbs for Q4 vs. 33.2, 95% CI 10.5–55.9 lbs for Q1) and lower risk of excessive gain. Conclusion In our cohort, early pregnancy BMI modified the association between insulin homeostasis and gestational weight gain. These associations suggest that the physiologic consequences of hyperinsulinemia differ between normal weight and obese women.     

Energy requirements during pregnancy based on total energy expenditure and energy deposition

BACKGROUND: Energy requirements during pregnancy remain controversial because of uncertainties regarding maternal fat deposition and reductions in physical activity. OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to estimate the energy requirements of healthy underweight, normal-weight, and overweight pregnant women and to explore energetic adaptations to pregnancy. DESIGN: The energy requirements of 63 women [17 with a low body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)), 34 with a normal BMI, and 12 with a high BMI] were estimated at 0, 9, 22, and 36 wk of pregnancy and at 27 wk postpartum. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) was measured by calorimetry, total energy expenditure (TEE) by doubly labeled water, and activity energy expenditure (AEE) as TEE - BMR. Energy deposition was calculated from changes in body protein and fat. Energy requirements equaled the sum of TEE and energy deposition. RESULTS: BMR increased gradually throughout pregnancy at a mean (+/-SD) rate of 10.7 +/- 5.4 kcal/gestational week, whereas TEE increased by 5.2 +/- 12.8 kcal/gestational week, which indicated a slight decrease in AEE. Energy costs of pregnancy depended on BMI group. Although total protein deposition did not differ significantly by BMI group (mean for the 3 groups: 611 g protein), FM deposition did (5.3, 4.6, and 8.4 kg FM in the low-, normal-, and high-BMI groups; P = 0.02). Thus, energy costs differed significantly by BMI group (P = 0.02). In the normal-BMI group, energy requirements increased negligibly in the first trimester, by 350 kcal/d in the second trimester, and by 500 kcal/d in the third trimester. CONCLUSION: Extra energy intake is required by healthy pregnant women to support adequate gestational weight gain and increases in BMR, which are not totally offset by reductions in AEE.     

城市妇女孕前体质指数对孕期血糖、血压和体重变化的影响

目的观察孕前体质指数对孕期妇女血糖、血压和体重变化的影响。方法采用队列研究方法对2009年2月5日至2009年3月15日在北京海淀妇幼保健院建围产保健卡的北京市孕妇600名进行随访,监测整个孕期身高、体重、血压、血糖等指标的变化。结果孕前体质指数与不同孕期体重有显著相关性(p0.001),超重和肥胖孕妇的糖耐量受损和糖尿病、高血压患病率在不同孕期阶段均显著高于低体重和正常孕妇的患病率(P0.05)。结论孕前体质指数是影响孕期妇女血压、血糖和体重变化的重要危险因素,开展孕前健康教育是预防妊娠期并发症的重要措施。     

Maternal obesity and breast-feeding practices

BACKGROUND: Maternal obesity has been associated with poor lactation in animal models, but the results of related research in humans are inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: We tested the hypothesis that women who are obese before pregnancy or who gain excessive weight during pregnancy are less likely to initiate and maintain breast-feeding than are their normal-weight counterparts. DESIGN: We analyzed 124 151 mother-infant pairs from the Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance System and the Pregnancy Nutrition Surveillance System. Body mass index (BMI) before pregnancy and gestational weight gain were categorized according to guidelines from the Institute of Medicine. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify the association between maternal obesity and breast-feeding initiation (n = 51 329), and multiple linear regression was used to examine the effect of maternal obesity on breast-feeding duration among women who initiated breast-feeding (n = 13 234). RESULTS: Regardless of gestational weight gain, obese women were less likely to initiate breast-feeding than were women with a normal BMI before pregnancy who also gained the recommended weight during pregnancy. Maternal BMI before pregnancy and gestational weight gain were each independently associated with duration of breast-feeding. Women who were obese before pregnancy breast-fed approximately 2 wk less than did their normal-weight counterparts, and women who either failed to reach or exceeded the recommended gestational weight gain breast-fed approximately 1 wk less than did those who gained the recommended gestational weight. CONCLUSIONS: Both obesity before pregnancy and inadequate weight gain during pregnancy have a negative effect on breast-feeding practice. Women who are obese before pregnancy or who gain inadequate weight during pregnancy need extra support for breast-feeding.     

Hereditary and environmental influences on blood pressure values of premenopausal women and their college-age daughters.

Blood pressure (BP) and environmental (dietary/lifestyle) variables were measured in 62 healthy normotensive pairs of premenopausal mothers (44.3 years) and their college-age consanguineous daughters (18.7 years) to estimate the relative contributions of genetic vs environmental factors on BP. As expected, the mothers had significantly higher systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressures than the daughters (p less than 0.004 and 0.012, respectively). Among the dietary/lifestyle variables measured, mothers were found to have significantly higher mean weight and body mass index (BMI) (p less than 0.009 and 0.001, respectively), and significantly lower lean body mass (LBM) and calcium intake than their daughters (p less than 0.003 and 0.037, respectively). Significant correlations were found between mean BP of the mothers and their mean weight and BMI. No significant correlations existed for the daughters. The familial resemblances between BP of the mothers and daughters were relatively low, i.e., 0.14 for SBP and 0.19 for DBP. From these findings we conclude that the higher BP values with increased age among this healthy female population primarily result from an increase in BMI and a shift from lean to fat mass, as measured by midarm circumference. Our results suggest that environmental factors, i.e., excessive energy intake over time, accompanied by decreased physical activity, are primarily responsible for the greater indices of body fat and the higher BPs observed in this sample of healthy premenopausal women.     

Association between serum leptin levels and 24-hour blood pressure in obese women

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between serum leptin and 24-hour blood pressure (BP) in obese women, according to body fat distribution. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A cross-sectional study was carried out in a population of 70 nondiabetic, normotensive, obese women (40 with android and 30 with gynoid type of obesity) and 20 nonobese healthy women as a control group. All subjects underwent 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring. Blood samples were collected for serum leptin and plasma insulin measurements. Total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were also measured. RESULTS: Serum leptin levels were significantly higher in obese subjects than in controls, and they were more elevated in android obese women than in gynoid ones. Leptin levels were positively related to body mass index (BMI), insulin, and waist and hip circumferences in the android group. Among gynoid subjects, leptin levels showed positive associations with BMI and insulin. In women with android obesity, strong positive correlations (p < 0.001) were found between leptin levels and 24-hour systolic BP (SBP), daytime SBP, nighttime SBP, 24-hour diastolic BP (DBP), and daytime DBP. Multiple regression analyses, including age, insulin and leptin concentrations, BMI, and waist and hip circumferences on 24-hour and daytime SBP and DBP, showed that only leptin levels contributed to the variability of BP. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that serum leptin levels are directly related to 24-hour BP levels in normotensive women with android fat distribution, independently of BMI.     

Hereditary and environmental influences on blood pressure values of premenopausal women and their college-age daughters

Blood pressure (BP) and environmental (dietary/lifestyle) variables were measured in 62 healthy normotensive pairs of premenopausal mothers (44.3 years) and their college-age consanguineous daughters (18.7 years) to estimate the relative contributions of genetic vs environmental factors on BP. As expected, the mothers had significantly higher systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressures than the daughters (p less than 0.004 and 0.012, respectively). Among the dietary/lifestyle variables measured, mothers were found to have significantly higher mean weight and body mass index (BMI) (p less than 0.009 and 0.001, respectively), and significantly lower lean body mass (LBM) and calcium intake than their daughters (p less than 0.003 and 0.037, respectively). Significant correlations were found between mean BP of the mothers and their mean weight and BMI. No significant correlations existed for the daughters. The familial resemblances between BP of the mothers and daughters were relatively low, i.e., 0.14 for SBP and 0.19 for DBP. From these findings we conclude that the higher BP values with increased age among this healthy female population primarily result from an increase in BMI and a shift from lean to fat mass, as measured by midarm circumference. Our results suggest that environmental factors, i.e., excessive energy intake over time, accompanied by decreased physical activity, are primarily responsible for the greater indices of body fat and the higher BPs observed in this sample of healthy premenopausal women.