2型糖尿病患者糖化血红蛋白与左室舒张功能的关系

目的筛选检测糖尿病早期心功能损害的超声心动图敏感指标,且评价血糖控制水平与心功能之间的关系。方法入选56例无心脏及相关疾病的2型糖尿病患者为糖尿病组,同时选取52例年龄、性别相匹配的健康志愿者为对照组。两组患者均行超声心动图常规指标及组织多普勒检查。糖尿病组患者测定糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)水平。结果两组病例收缩功能指标无显著差异(P0.05)。糖尿病组二尖瓣舒张晚期峰值流速(A)水平高于对照组(P0.01),E/A低于对照组(P0.01),等容舒张期时间(IVRT)较对照组延长(P0.05)。糖尿病组左室心肌平均舒张早期峰值速度(E')、E'/A'低于对照组(P0.01),糖尿病组左室心肌平均舒张晚期峰值速度(A')、E/E'高于对照组(P0.01)。HbA1c与E/A(r=-0.310,P0.05)、E'(r=-0.409,P0.01)、E'/A'(r=-0.380,P0.01)呈负相关,并与E/E'(r=0.488,P0.01)呈正相关。结论 2型糖尿病患者在收缩功能受损之前即存在舒张功能异常。组织多普勒是检测2型糖尿病患者早期舒张功能异常的有效工具,2型糖尿病患者HbA1c与左室舒张功能的敏感指标E/E'具有明显相关性。     

下肢动脉粥样硬化闭塞症患者颈动脉僵硬度改变与左心室舒张功能关系的超声评价

目的 应用超声技术评价下肢动脉粥样硬化闭塞症(AS)患者左侧颈动脉僵硬度改变与左室舒张功能的关系.方法 ①32例AS患者及34例健康志愿者,应用超声射频信号动脉僵硬度分析(quality arterial stiffness,QAS)技术分析其颈动脉僵硬度参数:扩张性系数(CC)、扩张性(DC)、僵硬度参数(α、β)和脉搏波传导速度(PWVβ).②二维超声心动图及组织多普勒技术测量左室结构和功能参数:舒张末期室间隔厚度(IVSd)、舒张末期左室内径(LVDd)、舒张末期左室后壁厚度(PWd)、左室射血分数(EF)、二尖瓣环收缩期峰值速度(s')、二尖瓣环舒张早期峰值速度(e ')、Tei指数、二尖瓣舒张早期血流峰速E与二尖瓣环舒张早期峰值速度e'比值(E/e ').将上述参数进行比较并与颈动脉僵硬度参数进行相关分析.结果 ①AS组DC、CC低于对照组,α、β、PWVβ高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);②AS组IVSd、PWd大于对照组,s '、e'低于对照组,Tei指数、E/e'高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).EF两组间差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);③e '与DC、CC呈正相关(r =0.39、0.36,P＜0.01),与α、β和PWVβ呈负相关(r=-0.42、-0.42、-0.49,P＜0.01);Tei指数与DC、CC呈负相关(r=-0.50、-0.52,P＜0.01),与α、β和PWVβ呈正相关(r =0.58、0.58、0.62,P＜0.01);E/e'与CC呈负相关(r=-0.27,P＜0.05),与PWVβ呈正相关(r=0.28,P＜0.05).s'、EF与颈动脉僵硬度参数均无明显相关(P＞0.05).结论 下肢动脉粥样硬化闭塞症时左侧颈动脉僵硬度增加,左室收缩及舒张功能受损;颈动脉僵硬度与左室舒张功能存在相关性,动脉僵硬程度能反映左室舒张功能的变化.     

血浆N末端B型利钠肽原联合E/E'评价原发性高血压患者左心室舒张功能不全的价值

目的 探讨左心室射血分数正常的原发性高血压患者血浆N末端B型利钠肽原(NTproBNP)水平与舒张功能不全的关系.方法 选择临床情况稳定、左心室射血分数≥50％的原发性高血压患者44例,舒张功能正常组14例,舒张功能不全组30例,其中延迟松弛组18例,假性正常化充盈组12例,测定其血浆NT-proBNP浓度,同时应用脉冲多普勒成像测定跨二尖瓣舒张早期血流速度峰值(E),应用组织多普勒成像测定二尖瓣环舒张早期运动速度峰值(E’),依据E/E’比值将受试者分为3组,并对相关数据进行统计分析.结果 舒张功能不全组血浆NT-proBNP为(115.2±78.9) ng/L,正常充盈组为(34.7±17.5) ng/L,假性正常化充盈组为(206.6±75.8) ng/L,随着左心室舒张功能不全加重,血浆NT-proBNP水平升高(F=85.263,P=0.000),3组间两两比较差异均有统计学意义(P均＜0.01).依据E/E’比值将受试者分为3组:E/E’＜10组16例,10～15组18例,E/E’＞15组10例,3组受试者的血浆NT-proBNP分别为(39.5±20.1)、(71.2±26.4)、(203.7±75.2) ng/L,血浆NT-proBNP随着E/E'比值的增加逐渐增加(r =0.80,P＜0.01).以NT-proBNP 119 ng/L为界值,诊断左心室充盈压升高(E/E’＞15)的敏感性为87％,特异性100％.结论 血浆NT-proBNP联合多普勒超声E/E'对识别原发性高血压患者早期的心脏改变,特别是左心室舒张功能不全有潜在的应用价值.     

定量组织速度成像评价2型糖尿病患者左心功能

目的应用定量组织速度成像技术观察2型糖尿病患者是否存在左心舒张和收缩功能异常.方法运用定量组织速度成像技术观测33例2型糖尿病患者和24例健康人心尖左心长轴、二腔和四腔切面二尖瓣环运动速度曲线,测量收缩期峰值速度Vs,舒张早期峰值速度Ve和舒张晚期峰值速度Va,计算Ve/Va比值;彩色多普勒血流显像法测量二尖瓣口舒张早期血流频谱E峰速度,舒张晚期血流频谱A峰速度,计算E/A比值.结果糖尿病组收缩期峰值速度Vs与健康人无显著差异 (P＞0.05);糖尿病组舒张早期峰值运动速度Ve较健康人减低(舒张早期峰值速度Ve糖尿病组/健康人:9.96±3.10/13.29±3.99,P＜0.05);舒张晚期峰值速度Va较健康人升高(舒张晚期峰值速度Va糖尿病组/健康人:11.58±2.21/10.13±1.36,P＜0.05),Ve/Va比值较健康人明显减低(Ve/Va比值糖尿病组/健康人: 0.88±0.32/1.33±0.40,P＜0.01).结论糖尿病患者早期即存在左室舒张功能异常,运用定量组织速度成像技术检测糖尿病患者左室舒张功能可检出松弛延迟和血流频谱假性正常化的病例.     

脓毒性休克患者左心室舒张功能不全相关因素分析及其预后影响

目的探讨影响脓毒性休克患者左心室舒张功能不全(LVDD)的相关因素及其对临床预后的影响。方法选取2014年6月至2015年12月浙江省人民医院ICU收治的127例脓毒性休克患者,按照舒张功能分为LVDD组(49例)和对照组(78例),对照组为左心室舒张功能正常患者。对两组患者的一般资料进行比较。于入ICU 24 h内行超声心动图检查,结合二尖瓣环舒张早期运动峰值速度(E’)和二尖瓣口舒张早期血流峰值流速/二尖瓣环舒张早期运动峰值速度(E/E’)作为评价脓毒性休克患者LVDD的指标。运用Pearson简单相关分析探讨影响脓毒性休克患者LVDD的相关因素,采用Logistic回归分析脓毒性休克患者死亡的危险因素。结果两组患者在年龄[(63±14)岁vs.(58±18)岁]、入ICU时收缩压[(90±18)mmHg vs.(99±18)mmHg]、冠状动脉粥样硬化性心脏病(CHD)(15/49 vs.12/78)、血肌酐[(188±96)μmol/L vs.(116±92)μmol/L]、急性病生理学与长期健康评价(APACHE)Ⅱ评分[(21±5)分vs.(17±6)分]、血浆脑利钠肽(BNP)[(178±84)ng/L vs.(355±128)ng/L]、左室收缩末期内径(LVESD)[(34±8)mm vs.(31±5)mm]、室间隔厚度(IVST)[(10.1±1.9)mm vs.(9.4±1.4)mm]、左室后壁厚度(PWT)[(10.2±1.5)mm vs.(9.6±1.2)mm]、左室侧壁二尖瓣环收缩期运动峰值速度(S’)[(9.0±3.0)cm/s vs.(11.4±3.6)cm/s]、E’[(7.3±2.3)cm/s vs.(12.3±3.6)cm/s]及E/E’[(11.6±4.0)vs.(6.8±2.6)]方面比较,差异均有统计学意义(P均0.05)。相关分析显示:年龄、高血压、CHD、血浆BNP和APACHEⅡ评分与E/E’呈正相关(r=0.302、0.289、0.277、0.418、0.290,P均0.05);而入ICU收缩压和左室射血分数(LVEF)与E/E’呈负相关(r=-0.239、-0.284,P均0.05)。Logistic回归分析统计结果显示:年龄[OR=1.040,95%CI(1.020,1.071)]、血乳酸[OR=1.492,95%CI(1.176,1.732)]、血浆BNP[OR=2.051,95%CI(1.232,2.964)]、E/E’[OR=1.362,95%CI(1.122,1.534)]和APACHEⅡ评分[OR=2.370,95%CI(1.131,3.674)]是预测脓毒性休克患者死亡的独立危险因素(P均0.05)。结论年龄、入ICU收缩压、高血压、CHD、血浆BNP、APACHEⅡ评分和LVEF与脓毒性休克患者LVDD存在相关;而年龄、血乳酸、血浆BNP、E/E’和APACHEⅡ评分是脓毒性休克患者死亡的独立危险因素。     

糖尿病患者左心室舒张功能与动脉僵硬度的相关性研究

目的：探讨2型糖尿病患者左心室舒张功能与动脉僵硬度的相关性。方法选取2012年1月至2013年12月在北京军区总医院住院治疗的2型糖尿病患者102例（糖尿病组）,同期住院治疗的非糖尿病患者126例作为对照组。采集入组患者的病史并检测血脂、血糖等生化指标,采用 VS-1000动脉硬化检测仪测定心踝血管指数（ CAVI）,超声心动图测定左心室舒张功能指标,包括左心房内径（LAD）、左心室舒张早期流速峰值（ E）、左心室舒张晚期流速峰值（ A）、E/ A 比值及 E 峰减速时间（EDT）。比较两组患者左心室舒张功能、CAVI 水平等指标的差异并进行相关性分析。结果糖尿病组患者 LAD、A、EDT、CAVI 水平显著高于对照组[LAD 分别为[（39.5±5.3）mm 与（34.4±4.2）mm;A 分别为（76.6±13.5）cm/ s 与（71.3±13.4）cm/ s;EDT 分别为（206.6±56.3）ms 与（185.5±34.4）ms;CAVI 分别为9.6±1.1与8.5±0.9];而 E、E/ A 水平显著低于对照组[E 分别为[（56.6±20.4）cm/ s 与（67.5±16.4）cm/ s;E/ A 分别为0.73±0.21与0.96±0.26],两组比较差异均有统计学意义（P 值分别为0.001、0.004、0.002、0.001、0.001、0.001）。在校正了体质量指数、甘油三酯等相关因素后 CAVI 仍与E/ A 呈负相关（r =-0.339,P ＜0.05）,与 EDT 呈正相关（r =0.314,P ＜0.05）。结论糖尿病患者心脏舒张功能减低,动脉僵硬度增加,两者呈负相关。     

糖尿病患者脂联素水平与左心室功能改变的相关性研究

目的观察糖尿病患者的血清脂联素水平,探讨糖尿病患者心功能早期改变与脂联素之间关系。方法选取2型糖尿病患者60例,对照组60例,应用经胸二维超声、组织多普勒超声、实时三维超声心动图获取受检者心脏左心室舒张、收缩功能参数,分别与其血清脂联素测值做相关分析。结果糖尿病患者与对照组相比,血清脂联素降低(P<0.01);二尖瓣口舒张早期前向血流峰值流速(ME)降低,舒张晚期前向血流峰值流速(MA)升高,ME/MA<1,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);二尖瓣环外侧壁舒张早期运动峰值速度(ME’)降低,舒张晚期运动峰值速度(MA’)升高,ME’/MA’<1,ME/ME’比值增大,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。血清脂联素与ME/MA、ME’/MA’呈正相关(r分别为0.368,0.365,P<0.05);与ME/ME’比值呈负相关(r=-0.347,P<0.05)。结论糖尿病患者左心室舒张功能受损,且与血清脂联素水平密切相关。     

CK-MB、BNP联合心脏Tei指数在小儿重症肺炎的心脏舒张功能评估及临床意义

目的探讨小儿重症肺炎合并心脏舒张功能不全患者全心功能指数(Tei指数)与CK-MB、BNP之间的相关性,寻找重症肺炎患儿早期心功能受损客观诊断指标。方法将98例重症肺炎并左室射血分数(EF值)正常患儿分为舒张功能减退组及正常组,两组分别抽取晨间空腹静脉血化验CK-MB,心脏超声测E/A、E’/E、Tei指数,再将舒张功能减退组分为轻、中、重三亚组,比较各组BNP、CK-MB及Tei指数有无统计学差异,分析CK-MB、BNP与Tei指数三者的相关性。结果重症肺炎合并左室舒张功能减退患儿CK-MB、BNP、Tei指数随舒张功能减退程度加重逐渐升高,CK-MB与BNP及Tei指数之间变化趋势均互呈明显正相关(r=0.786、r=0.824,r=0.872,P0.05)。结论 Tei指数结合血浆BNP、CK-MB水平可能作为临床评估重症肺炎患儿早期心功能受损的一项方便、快捷、有临床价值的指标。     

瞬时波强技术对2型糖尿病早期患者左心室舒张功能的研究

目的 应用瞬时波强(WI)技术结合多普勒组织成像(DTI)分析2型糖尿病早期患者左室舒张功能变化.方法 选择左室射血分数(LVEF)＞ 50％的单纯2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者21例和糖尿病合并高血压(T2DM+ EH)患者25例,正常对照组25例.应用脉冲多普勒测量舒张早期和舒张晚期二尖瓣口血流峰值速度(E、A),DTI测量二尖瓣环舒张早期和舒张晚期峰值速度(Ea、Aa),WI检测右颈总动脉瞬时减速度波强(W2),对比分析三组受试者各项指标的差异.结果 与对照组比较,T2DM组Ea减低(P＜0.05),E/Ea呈增高趋势,但差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05),W2明显增高(P＜0.01).T2DM+ EH组与对照组比较Ea明显减低(P＜0.01),E/Ea明显增高(P＜0.01),W2增高(P＜0.05).与T2DM组比较,T2DM+ EH组E/Ea增高(P＜0.05),Ea、W2呈减低趋势,但差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).T2DM+ EH组、T2DM组与对照组比较,Aa呈增高趋势,但差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 WI技术联合DTI可以无创、全面地评价2型糖尿病早期左室舒张功能异常改变.     

多普勒超声评价2型糖尿病患者主动脉顺应性

目的探讨多普勒超声评价2型糖尿病患者主动脉顺应性的应用价值,并分析血糖、血脂对其影响.方法选取2型糖尿病患者及年龄、性别相匹配的健康人各60例,测量胸腹主动脉的脉搏波传导速度(PWV)、空腹血糖(FBG)、血浆总胆固醇(TC)、甘油三脂(TG)、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(HDL-C)、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL -C)、载脂蛋白 AI(ApoAI)和载脂蛋白B(ApoB).结果 2型糖尿病患者PWV显著增快[(9.41±1.48) m/s vs (7.45±1.59 )m/s,P＜0.01]; PWV与 FBG、TC、TG、LDL-C、ApoB呈显著正相关(FBG: r=0.42,P＜0.01;TC:r=0.32,P=0.03;TG:r=0.27,P＜0.01;LDL-C:r=0.33,P＜0.01;APOB:r=0.24,P＜0.01), 与 HDL-C呈显著负相关(r=-0.41,P＜0.01).结论多普勒法的PWV能无创伤又简便地评价2型糖尿病患者主动脉顺应性.2型糖尿病患者主动脉顺应性下降,PWV加快,与血糖增高、血脂代谢紊乱有关.     

Dissociable correlates of two classes of retrieval processing in prefrontal cortex

Although substantial evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) implements processes that are critical for accurate episodic memory judgments, the specific roles of different PFC subregions remain unclear. Here, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to distinguish between prefrontal activity related to operations that (1) influence processing of retrieval cues based on current task demands, or (2) are involved in monitoring the outputs of retrieval. Fourteen participants studied auditory words spoken by a male or female speaker and completed memory tests in which the stimuli were unstudied foil words and studied words spoken by either the same speaker at study, or the alternate speaker. On "general" test trials, participants were to determine whether each word was studied, regardless of the voice of the speaker, whereas on "specific" test trials, participants were to additionally distinguish between studied words that were spoken in the same voice or a different voice at study. Thus, on specific test trials, participants were explicitly required to attend to voice information in order to evaluate each test item. Anterior (right BA 10), dorsolateral prefrontal (right BA 46), and inferior frontal (bilateral BA 47/12) regions were more active during specific than during general trials. Activation in anterior and dorsolateral PFC was enhanced during specific test trials even in response to unstudied items, suggesting that activation in these regions was related to the differential processing of retrieval cues in the two tasks. In contrast, differences between specific and general test trials in inferior frontal regions (bilateral BA 47/12) were seen only for studied items, suggesting a role for these regions in post-retrieval monitoring processes. Results from this study are consistent with the idea that different PFC subregions implement distinct, but complementary processes that collectively support accurate episodic memory judgments.     

Determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum using immunological inhibition of creatine kinase M subunit activity. Activity kinetics and diagnostic significance in myocardial infarction.

This is a new method for the determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum. The method uses direct activity measurement of creatine kinase B subunit activity after blocking of CK-M subunit activity by inhibiting antibodies. The test takes no longer than 15 min. The method yields an intra-serial C.V. of 2.0-12.9%, and a C.V. from day to day of 5.5%. The detection limit is 3.4 U/l creatine kinase MB. In the 95 cases with proven myocardial infarction several types of creatine kinase MB activity kinetics could be determined. The percentage of creatine kinase MB of peak CK-total is 6-25%, with a mean of 11.1%. The amount of creatine kinase MB with respect to total CK activity after reinfarction is higher than the amount after initial infarction.     

俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者氧合的影响

目的 探讨俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张术(RM)治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)患者的治疗作用.方法 从海拔2260m的地区医院筛选RM治疗无效的41例ARDS患者[平均氧合指数( PaO2/FiO2)较RM前升高＜20％视为RM无效],依不同病因分为肺内源性ARDS组(ARDSp组)和肺外源性ARDS组(ARDSexp组),每组再按信封法随机分为俯卧位组和仰卧位组,即ARDSp俯卧位组(11例)、ARDSp仰卧位组(9例)、ARDSexp俯卧位组(10例)、ARDSexp仰卧位组(11例).在通气前及通气1、2、3、4h监测动脉血氧分压( PaO2)、PaO2/FiO2、静态顺应性(Cst)、气道阻力(Raw)的变化.结果 通气lh时,ARDSexp俯卧位组PaO2/FiO2( mm Hg,l mm Hg=0.133 kPa)即较通气前显著升高(157.4±40.6比129.3±48.7,P＜0.05),并随通气时间延长呈持续增高趋势,4h达峰值(219.1 ±41.1);且ARDSexp俯卧位组通气3h内PaO2/FiO2较其他3组显著增高,另3组间则差异无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组、ARDSexp俯卧位组通气4h时PaO2/FiO2均较相应仰卧位组显著增高(208.8±39.7比127.4±47.1,219.1±41.1比124.9±50.8,均P＜0.05).4组通气前后Cst无显著改变,各组间差异也无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组通气4h时Raw(cmH2O·L-1·s-1)较通气前显著降低(6.8±1.7比10.7±1.8,P＜0.05),且明显低于其他3组;其他3组各时间点Raw组内及组间比较差异均无统计学意义.结论 俯卧位通气作为ARDS机械通气重要策略之一,可以改善RM无效高原ARDS患者的氧合,为抢救患者赢得宝贵的时间.     

Digital imaging among medical facilities

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) in the USA operates a network of 172 medical centres which all utilize a hospital information system (HIS) which has been developed and is currently maintained by the VA. During the past several years, an image management and communication module has been developed, installed and clinically utilized at the Washington DC and Maryland VA Medical Centres. This image management and communication system, referred to as the decentralized hospital computer program (DHCP) imaging system, is fully integrated with a commercial picture archiving and communication system (PACS). The system is utilized to capture, archive, and display all images generated within the hospital including radiology, nuclear medicine, pathology, endoscopy, bronchoscopy, and dermatology, intraoperative photographs, ECG data, and a limited number of paper documents. The ultimate goal of the project is to have all patient text and image data available at any clinical workstation to any authorized user anywhere within the network of medical centres. Clinical requirements for an imaging workstation include ease of use, rapid and reliable access to the complete set of patient information, and images which are of acceptable quality to meet the requirements of the user and the subspecialty. Patient confidentiality and data security must be safeguarded at all times. Integration of the images with the remainder of the patient's database was found to be critical to the success of the project. The experience at the Washington and Maryland facilities suggests that an imaging system that is successfully integrated with a hospital information system can provide substantial clinical and economic benefits both within and among medical centres. Clinical acceptance and utilization of the system has been excellent, particularly in diagnostic radiology where DHCP Imaging has been interfaced to a commercial PAC system. Based upon this initial experience, the VA has begun to deploy the system throughout its large network of medical centres.     

Myocardial elastography at both high temporal and spatial resolution for the detection of infarcts

Myocardial elastography is a novel method for noninvasively assessing regional myocardial function, with the advantages of high spatial and temporal resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In this paper, in-vivo experiments were performed in anesthetized normal and infarcted mice (one day after left anterior descending coronary artery [LAD] ligation) using a high-resolution (30 MHz) ultrasound system (Vevo 770, VisualSonics Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada). Radiofrequency (RF) signals of the left ventricle (LV) in longitudinal (long-axis) view and the associated electrocardiogram (ECG) were simultaneously acquired. Using a retrospective ECG gating technique, 2-D full field-of-view RF frames were acquired at an extremely high frame rate (8 kHz) that resulted in high-quality incremental displacement and strain estimation of the myocardium. The incremental results were further accumulated to obtain the cumulative displacements and strains. Two-dimensional and M-mode displacement images and strain images (elastograms), as well as displacement and strain profiles as a function of time, were compared between normal and infarcted mice. Incremental results clearly depicted cardiac events including LV contraction, LV relaxation and isovolumetric phases in both normal and infarcted mice, and also evidently indicated reduced motion and deformation in the infarcted myocardium. The elastograms indicated that the infarcted regions underwent thinning during systole rather than thickening, as in the normal case. The cumulative elastograms were found to have higher elastographic SNR (SNR(e)) than the incremental elastograms (e.g., 10.6 vs. 4.7 in a normal myocardium, and 6.0 vs. 2.4 in an infarcted myocardium). Finally, preliminary statistical results from nine normal (m = 9) and seven infarcted (n = 7) mice indicated the capability of the cumulative strain in differentiating infracted from normal myocardia. In conclusion, myocardial elastography could provide regional strain information at simultaneously high temporal (>/=0.125 ms) and spatial ( approximately 55 microm) resolution as well as high precision ( approximately 0.05 microm displacement). This technique was thus capable of accurately characterizing normal myocardial function throughout an entire cardiac cycle, at the same high resolution, and detecting and localizing myocardial infarction in vivo.     

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine

Morphine, the most widely used mu-opioid analgesic for acute and chronic pain, is the standard against which new analgesics are measured. A thorough understanding of the pharmacokinetics of morphine is required in order to safely and effectively use this analgesic in a wide variety of patients with different levels of organ function. A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify literature published between 1966 and January 2002 relevant to the pharmacokinetics of morphine. These publications were reviewed and the literature summarized regarding unique and clinically important elements of morphine disposition relative to its parenteral administration (including intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, epidural and intrathecal administration), absorption profile (immediate release, controlled release, and sublingual/buccal, and rectal administration), distribution, and its metabolism/ excretion. Special populations, including infants, elderly, and those with renal/liver failure, have a unique morphine pharmacokinetic profile that must be taken into account in order to maximize analgesic efficacy and reduce the risk of adverse events.