Oxprenolol in the treatment of hypertension in the elderly

Controversy continues to surround the value of drug treatment of hypertension in the elderly. Epidemiologic evidence implicates hypertension as a major risk factor in the precocious development of stroke and coronary heart disease in the elderly subject as clearly as it is implicated in the younger person. The hemodynamic and neuroendocrine profiles of the older patient with essential hypertension are similar to those of younger patients in the stable phase of the disease. However, the arterial ravages induced by many years of sustained hypertension render the circulation of the elderly subject more sensitive to pharmacologic intervention. The benefit-risk ratio of most antihypertensive drugs appears to be inversely related to age. Diuretics reduce the blood pressure at rest but have no influence on the increases in systolic pressure during normal activity; in addition, they carry potentially serious metabolic hazards in the elderly hypertensive patient. Centrally acting drugs likewise lower the blood pressure at rest without influencing the high systolic pressures induced by exercise. They also enhance the tendency to endogenous depression. Adrenergic-neurone blocking drugs and alpha-adrenoceptor antagonists are contraindicated because of the frequency of impaired cardiovascular reflexes in the elderly. The beta-blocking drugs can reduce the risk of coronary and cerebrovascular disease in the older patient with hypertension. They appear to be well tolerated, but because of their impaired metabolic handling in many elderly patients they should probably be used in smaller doses than those prescribed in younger patients. The influence of antihypertensive treatment on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the elderly hypertensive patient is not known.     

Treatment of hypertension in the elderly

Investigation of preventive measures for hypertension and atherosclerosis is a geriatric medicine priority. While the causes of both isolated systolic hypertension and conventional systolic and diastolic hypertension in the elderly are well defined, the benefits of lowering blood pressure are not. Evidence to support the treatment of symptomatic hypertension is convincing for men 60 years of age; it is not for women in this age group. The need to treat hypertension, particularly isolated systolic hypertension in patients above 75 years old, is still not resolved. Isolated systolic hypertension in older patients is at least as strong a risk factor for cardiovascular disease as is diastolic hypertension. Ongoing trials may answer these questions; in the meantime, drug therapy in this group will vary widely. The elderly hypertensive is more likely than the younger hypertensive to have other diseases; diagnosis of these disorders is crucial. Hypertension arising de novo late in life warrants a search for underlying and possibly remedial causes. Antihypertensive drug therapy to relieve symptoms is difficult to justify, because most elderly hypertensive patients are asymptomatic; however, it has been shown to delay morbid and fatal complications of hypertension. Appropriate therapy for the elderly hypertensive must be individualized and should be associated with few or no side effects. The thiazides are the preferred diuretics for long-term treatment of hypertension in the elderly. Beta blockers are attractive because they are cardioprotective, counter the end organ effect of catecholamines and reduce angina; however, some decrease cardiac output, increase peripheral resistance, decrease renal blood flow and cause fatigue.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Geriatric hypertension: antihypertensive therapy in coronary artery disease

Systemic hypertension is a common clinical problem in the elderly. There is emerging evidence to suggest that with careful utilization of antihypertensive drugs, blood pressure can be lowered in the elderly population. Whether isolated systolic hypertension should be treated aggressively remains an unanswered question despite the evidence that systolic hypertension can cause certain cardiovascular complications. An elderly patient with hypertension and concomitant coronary artery disease merits proper blood pressure control with appropriate drugs to prevent progression of coronary disease. The therapeutic objective is not only to lower the blood pressure but to accomplish this goal with drugs which are likely to have a favorable effect on coronary artery disease. Changing trends in the drug therapy of hypertension indicate that calcium antagonists and beta-blocking drugs offer a therapeutic advantage in elderly hypertensive patients with coronary artery diseases.     

Treating hypertension in the elderly

This article discusses various topics related to treating hypertension in the elderly, including pseudohypertension, systolic hypertension, characteristics of young and elderly hypertensive patients, diagnostic considerations in evaluating elderly hypertensive patients, and general therapeutic considerations.     

Hypertension in the Elderly

Hypertension as a risk factor for cardiac and cerebrovascular morbidity and mortality poses a major health problem for our increasingly elderly population. Recent trials have shown large reductions in stroke, heart failure, and coronary artery disease when elderly hypertensive patients are treated. These benefits are also seen in elderly patients with isolated systolic hypertension. The elderly patient with hypertension should be investigated and managed in a similar manner to their younger counterpart. Nonpharmacological measures, such as dietary salt and calorie restriction, regular exercise, cessation of smoking, and reduction of excess alcohol intake, should be recommended. If these are insufficient, pharmacological treatment should be tailored to the individual patient. Diuretics have been shown to improve outcome measures in the elderly. Other antihypertensive drugs may be added or substituted depending on the patient's blood pressure response to therapy and their comorbid conditions. If all elderly hypertensive patients were treated, a major reduction in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular mortality and morbidity would result. Consideration also needs to be given to nonpharmacological treatment, particularly salt restriction in older subjects where blood pressure is at the upper limit of normal, as this would also result in a major reduction in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.     

Pathophysiologic considerations in the treatment of the elderly hypertensive patient

Changes that occur as a consequence of aging can influence the development of hypertension and its complications. Such changes may adversely affect cardiac function and tissue blood flow and the responsiveness of the circulation to antihypertensive therapy. The distribution and metabolism of antihypertensive drugs may also be influenced by aging. These factors can complicate the pharmacologic management of the elderly hypertensive patient and may lead to a higher incidence of side effects. A conservative approach to the treatment of isolated systolic hypertension is indicated because the merits of therapy remain uncertain. Although standard stepped-care treatment can be used, certain special precautions should be considered. Lower doses of medications are generally required in elderly than in young hypertensives. Hypokalemia and volume contraction are the more frequent and more clinically important complications of diuretic therapy, while sluggishness, sexual dysfunction, or decreased mentation are more commonly observed with sympatholytic agents. Complications from beta-adrenergic blockers also are relatively frequent in elderly persons. Calcium-channel blockers, although not approved in the United States for the treatment of hypertension, may be beneficial in these patients. When diastolic hypertension is also present, a vigorous approach to lowering blood pressure should be used because the benefits of such therapy have been well documented. However, similar precautions should be used in these patients as in those with systolic hypertension.     

不同类型老年高血压患者血浆同型半胱氨酸变化与动脉硬化的关系

目的比较不同类型老年高血压患者血浆同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)变化并探讨其与动脉硬化的关系。方法入选在我科住院及门诊就诊的老年高血压患者167例,分为老年单纯收缩期高血压患者(ISH组)79例及老年双期高血压患者(DH组,收缩压及舒张压均升高者)88例,另选择55例健康体检正常的老年人作为对照组,分别测定其血浆Hcy、测量踝肱指数(ABI)、颈动脉内膜中层厚度(IMT),比较各组血浆Hcy水平及其与ABI、IMT相关性。结果吸烟、舒张压水平及血清LDL-C水平3组间比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);与对照组比较,ISH组及DH组Hcy水平、IMT明显增高,ABI明显降低(P<0.05);与DH组比较,ISH组Hcy水平、IMT明显增高,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论老年ISH患者血浆Hcy水平较双期高血压患者及对照组明显增高,且与动脉硬化呈正相关,老年ISH患者在降压达标的同时更应关注降低血浆Hcy浓度。     

Optimal treatment of hypertension in the elderly: A Korean perspective

With the progression of the aging population, common diseases of the elderly have become the center of attention in most developed countries. Hypertension is one of the most common morbid conditions in the elderly and has a great impact on their health status because it is the main risk factor of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. However, a considerable amount of uncertainty remains regarding hypertension in the elderly, such as the benefits of hypertension control in oldest-old populations, the optimal level of blood pressure control, and the efficacy of antihypertensive drugs for the prevention of cognitive dysfunction. While there are many controversial issues concerning the optimal management of hypertension in the elderly, the number of elderly hypertensive patients that require treatment is expected to increase due to the aging population. As a result, knowledge regarding the mechanisms of hypertension in the elderly and specific consideration in managing hypertensive elderly patients are needed to improve the clinical outcome. Furthermore, new therapeutic interventions that are aimed at attenuating age-related vascular changes should be investigated, because hypertension in the elderly, especially isolated systolic hypertension has specific characteristics of increased arterial stiffness in most cases.     

Blood pressure lowering for the primary and secondary prevention of stroke: treatment of hypertension reduces the risk of stroke.

Hypertension is the most important risk factor in the development of stroke. It is also the risk factor most amenable to treatment. The results from 18 controlled trials show a reduction in relative risk of stroke of 25-47% among treated hypertensive patients. This reduction applies both to the elderly and to younger patients, but the absolute reductions are greater among the elderly and the number of patients with hypertension that need to be treated to prevent a stroke is lower in the elderly because they have a higher risk of stroke. The reductions in relative but not absolute risk appear to be similar for both isolated systolic hypertension and combined systolic and diastolic hypertension in the elderly. The case for antihypertensive treatment in the secondary prevention of stroke is less clear but the results of four clinical trials of antihypertensive treatment among patients with and without hypertension and a history of cerebrovascular disease point to a probable benefit. The results of the PROGRESS trial will elucidate this further.     

Influence of age and severity of hypertension on blood pressure response to isometric handgrip exercise.

The influence of age and severity of hypertension on the blood pressure response to isometric handgrip exercise (IHG) was studied in essential hypertensive patients (n = 122). The change in blood pressure during IHG in elderly patients with isolated systolic hypertension (ISH) (n = 12) was also studied. Left ventricular hypertrophy due to hypertension was used as an index of the severity of hypertension. The change in systolic blood pressure (SBP) during IHG was markedly greater in essential hypertensives than in normotensive subjects (n = 36). Among hypertensive patients, the change in SBP increased with increasing severity of hypertension. This change in SBP was not influenced by age. The change in SBP during IHG in patients with ISH was significantly smaller than that in essential hypertensive patients and was similar to that in normotensive subjects in the elderly. These results demonstrate that age does not affect the increased blood pressure response to IHG in essential hypertensive patients but the greater the severity of hypertension, the greater the increase in SBP during IHG. Elderly patients with ISH do not have an enhanced blood pressure response to IHG.     

北京部分城区老年人群高血压现况调查

目的分析2002～2003年北京部分城区60～74岁老年人群高血压患病率及有关特点。方法以北京大学和首钢地区60～74岁1157例心血管病危险因素横断面调查结果为研究样本，对老年人高血压的患病率、高血压的类型、高血压患者合并其他心血管病危险因素等情况进行分析。结果（1）该地区60～74岁人群高血压患病率、治疗率和控制率分别为60．5％、60．9％和23．4％；（2）随着年龄增长，男女两性高血压患病率呈持续增加趋势（P〈0．05）；与60～64岁组相比，70～74岁组男性高血压患病率增加了30．3％，女性高血压患病率增加了32.1％；（3）老年人单纯收缩期高血压患病率为25.0％，占老年高血压患者的42.3％；（4）老年高血压患者合并至少一个其他心血管病危险因素的比例为85．9％。结论高血压是北京部分城区60～74岁老年人群常见的心血管疾病，单纯收缩期高血压为老年高血压患者的常见类型，老年高血压患者绝大多数合并有其他心血管病危险因素。     

Renal and cardiovascular protection associated to antihypertensive treatment in the elderly

The incidence of arterial hypertension increases with age in such a way that by the age of 60 the incidence is greater than 50% in men and women. This increase is particularly relevant if we consider the changes in systolic blood pressure (increase) and diastolic blood pressure (decrease) in relation to age and as a consequence in the reduction of vascular compliance which is common in men and women over the age of 60. These disorders are associated to artheriosclerosis and the corresponding increase in pulse pressure. It is for these reasons that the most common form of hypertension is isolated systolic hypertension (SBP > 140 mmHg and SBP < 90 mmHg), which represents 50% of hypertensive patients in the elderly population. Isolated systolic hypertension is also associated to an increase in cardiovascular disease (MI, stroke), increasing the risk of mortality four times. In elderly people, hypertension and isolated systolic hypertension are risk factors that can be managed. Today there is sufficient evidence from clinical trials that show a clear benefit in the reduction of the cardiovascular and renal risk associated to the antihypertensive treatment in the elderly, at least when the blood pressure is greater than 160/90 mmHg. The target blood pressure figures to control in the elderly person, probably below 160/90 mmHg, still need to be determined.     

老年人高血压临床特征及其防治方法分析

目的探讨分析老年高血压患者的临床特征,并提出相应的防治方法。方法选取2011年5月到2014年5月来我院就诊的老年高血压患者128例作为研究对象,对其临床表现进行观察分析。结果 128例患者临床表现主要是头晕、头痛、心悸且伴有耳鸣等症状;其中61例患者为ISH,32例患者为IDH,而其余患者则为二者的合并症;高血压I期、II期、III期所占比例分别为12.5%、71.88%、15.62%%;高血压患者易导致多种并发症的发生,在128例患者中合并脑溢血、冠心病、脑梗塞的比例为11.72%、74.22%、26.56%,其中合并冠心病、脑溢血的患者男女之间并无明显差异(P0.05),而脑梗阻患者的男女发病率具有较大的差异。结论老年患者的主要临床特征为单纯性的收缩压增高,且具有较多的并发症和合并症。     

Managing hypertension in chronic renal disease

Hypertension is very common in the elderly patient with renal insufficiency and may be primary or secondary to the kidney disease. In these patients, hypertension is usually associated with an increase in peripheral vascular resistance and salt sensitivity (the latter related to the degree of renal failure.) Therapy should be tailored to the individual patient, particularly when the elevated blood pressure and renal insufficiency are associated with other significant medical problems. Most of the drugs used in younger hypertensives may be used in the elderly patient with renal insufficiency, but in general, starting and maintenance doses should be lower because of the greater sensitivity due to age and/or the renal failure. The goal in the elderly hypertensive patient with renal failure is similar to that in other hypertensive patients: blood pressure should be brought to 140/90 mm Hg or lower. In the elderly patient with resistant hypertension or who manifests a decrease in kidney function as blood pressure is lowered, an effort must be made to look for associated renovascular disease.     

老年高血压病患者左心室肥厚与脑白质疏松症的关系

目的　探讨老年高血压病患者左心室肥厚和脑白质疏松症 (LA)的关系。方法　 13 8例老年高血压病患者 ,按有或无LA分为两组 ,并对其年龄、是否合并左心室肥厚、糖尿病、高胆固醇血症、吸烟史以及收缩压和舒张压水平、高血压病持续时间进行分析。结果　在单因素Logistic回归分析中 ,左心室肥厚、收缩压水平、高血压病持续时间及年龄均为LA的影响因素 ;在多因素条件Logistic回归分析中 ,左心室肥厚仍为LA的危险因素之一 (OR =2 .771,95 %CI值 1.2 60～6.0 94;P <0 .0 1)。结论　左心室肥厚为老年高血压病患者LA独立的危险因素。     

Improving blood pressure control and clinical outcomes through initial use of combination therapy in stage 2 hypertension

Poor control of clinic and 24-h blood pressure (BP) is associated with enhanced risk of all cardiovascular disease events. Certain patient groups including the elderly, African-Americans, and those with hypertension and comorbid disease are difficult to control, as are patients with stage 2 hypertension (systolic BP>or=160 mmHg or diastolic BP>or=100 mmHg). It has been estimated that more than two-thirds of high-risk hypertensive patients with stage 2 hypertension and all hypertensive patients with diabetes mellitus or kidney disease will require two or more antihypertensive agents from different therapeutic classes to reach BP goals. Combining agents with distinct and complementary modes of action can address different pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in hypertension and may lead to more complete and prompt reductions in BP. Tolerability may also improve, as certain classes of antihypertensive agents ameliorate adverse effects associated with other agents. Patients may benefit from fixed-dose combinations of drugs as this simplifies the regimen and may improve adherence with therapy, control of BP, and ultimately lead to reductions in cardiovascular events. Recent data and treatment guidelines support the use of a combination strategy as 'initial' antihypertensive therapy in high-risk patients with stage 2 hypertension.     

Arterial hypertension of the aged patient in general medicine. French national survey]

The aim of the study was to assess the management of elderly hypertensives in general practice. A sample of 2,727 general practitioners filled a specially designed questionnaire between February and March 1998 in France. Areas covered by the questionnaire included risk of hypertension, blood pressure measurement and treatment. Most respondents (97%) considered that hypertension remains a cardiovascular risk factor in elderly but 4% thought that hypertension is usefull by improving target organ perfusion. Fifty-five percent recorded both standing and supine measurement, 34% reported measuring blood pressure with patient supine only. All respondents reported that they would start antihypertensive treatment on the basis of blood pressure level. A minimum systolic level of 160 and 180 mmHg was given by 65% and 27% practitioners respectively while 2% required a minimum level ranging from 139 to 149 mmHg. Among the respondents who considered that isolated systolic hypertension is pathological (74%), 73% and 19% used 160 and 180 mmHg as cut-off, respectively. Among those who considered that isolated systolic hypertension is physiological (23%), 43% and 46% initiated treatment above 160 and 180 mmHg, respectively. A minimum diastolic level of 90 mmHg was reported by many respondents (61%) while 34% required a cut-off level of 100 mmHg. Comparison of systolic and diastolic levels showed that 49% practitioners started antihypertensive therapy above 160/90 mmHg and 16% above 180/100 mmHg. Less than 1% reported a threshold level of 140/90 mmHg. Most practitioners 5%) treated hypertensive patients regardless of their age. The others treated patients younger than 65 years old (3%), 70 (2%), 80 (5%) and 90 (4%). All respondents reported that they would treat their patients to prevent vascular complications, mainly cerebrovascular (96%), cardiac (89%) and kidney (75%) disease. In conclusion, for all general practitioners, hypertension remains a cardiovascular risk factor in elderly and hypertensive therapy is beneficial to prevent cardiovascular complications. This study reveals some inter-physician variability in blood pressure measurement and treatment. The risk of standing blood pressure fall is not taken into account by 66% of respondents. Variability in age threshold is in accordance with the lack of published data on benefice of hypertensive treatment in the very old. The risk of isolated systolic hypertension is under-estimated by 27% of physicians who reported a minimum systolic blood pressure level of 180 mmHg to initiate therapy.     

Prevalence of comorbidities and their influence on blood pressure goal attainment in geriatric patients

Hypertension in elderly patients is common and is associated with unique challenges. This study examines the prevalence of comorbidities in elderly hypertensive patients and evaluates the association between comorbidities and other covariates with blood pressure goal attainment. Data were collected through retrospective review of medical records and included patient characteristics, comorbidities, treatment-related variables, and blood pressure goal attainment. At least 1 comorbidity was present in 88% of patients, and 61% had multiple comorbidities. The most common comorbidity was isolated systolic hypertension. The presence of diabetes or isolated systolic hypertension at initial visit and treatment with a thiazide diuretic at the final clinic visit were associated with significantly higher odds of patients not achieving blood pressure goal. A diagnosis of heart failure was associated with lower odds of not achieving blood pressure goal. These issues should be given special consideration during the evaluation, treatment selection, and long-term monitoring of this population.     

Arterial hypertension – Clinical trials update 2021

AimThis review aims to summarize and discuss some of the most relevant clinical trials in epidemiology, diagnostics, and treatment of hypertension published in 2020 and 2021.Data synthesisThe trials included in this review are related to hypertension onset age and risk for future cardiovascular disease, reliability of different blood pressure monitoring methods, role of exercise-induced hypertension, treatment of hypertension in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, management of hypertension high-risk patient groups, e.g., in the elderly (≥80 years) and patients with atrial fibrillation, and the interplay between nutrition and hypertension, as well as recent insights into renal denervation for treatment of hypertension.ConclusionsHypertension onset age, nighttime blood pressure levels and a riser pattern are relevant for the prognosis of future cardiovascular diseases. The risk of coronary heart disease appears to increase linearly with increasing exercise systolic blood pressure. Renin-angiotensin system blockers are not associated with an increased risk for a severe course of COVID-19. In elderly patients, a risk-benefit assessment of intensified blood pressure control should be individually evaluated. A J-shaped association between cardiovascular disease and achieved blood pressure could also be demonstrated in patients with atrial fibrillation on anticoagulation. Salt restriction and lifestyle modification remain effective options in treating hypertensive patients at low cardiovascular risk. Sodium glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors and Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists show BP-lowering effects. Renal denervation should be considered as an additional or alternative treatment option in selected patients with uncontrolled hypertension.     

Effect of combination therapy of benidipine hydrochloride and candesartan cilexetil on serum lipid metabolism and blood pressure in elderly hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

The effects of combination therapy of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) and a calcium antagonist, benidipine hydrochloride, on glucose and lipid metabolism and pulse pressure were studied in elderly hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Twenty-five hypertensive diabetic patients aged 65 years or older, who had been receiving candesartan cilexetil, were administered benidipine hydrochloride (4 mg/day) and followed for 4 months. After 4 months, systolic and diastolic blood pressure decreased significantly from 154/91 mmHg to 139/78 mmHg (p<0.01 versus before benidipine hydrochloride administration). Body mass index (BMI) and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) were apparently reduced but the changes were not statistically significant. The serum lipid profile showed no significant changes in serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Serum lipoprotein lipase mass levels (preheparin LPL mass) increased significantly from 51 to 59 ng/dl (p<0.01 versus before benidipine hydrochloride administration), and the LDL/HDL motility ratio calculated from PAG disc electrophoresis decreased significantly (p<0.05 versus before benidipine hydrochloride administration). When patients were divided into a systolic hypertension group (systolic blood pressure > or =140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure <90 mmHg) and non-systolic hypertension group (others), preheparin LPL mass was significantly lower in the systolic hypertension group, and the decrease in pulse pressure and increase in preheparin LPL mass were significantly greater in the systolic hypertension group. Stepwise regression analysis showed that low preheparin LPL mass at baseline was associated with a decrease in pulse pressure. Add-on benidipine hydrochloride therapy in elderly hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus significantly decreases the LDL/HDL motility ratio and pulse pressure, and significantly increases preheparin LPL mass, in addition to improving blood pressure control. These findings suggest that combination therapy with benidipine hydrochloride and candesartan cilexetil may contribute to the suppression of arteriosclerosis and may be useful for elderly hypertensive patients with diabetes mellitus.