南京地区肺炎链球菌的耐药变迁及喹诺酮耐药机制研究

目的了解南京地区肺炎链球菌临床分离株的耐药性变迁及对喹诺酮类的耐药机制。方法收集2010-2012年南京7所教学医院共147株肺炎链球菌,琼脂稀释法测定9种抗菌药物的MIC,与南京2006-2007年分离的肺炎链球菌耐药情况进行比较。并对氟喹诺酮耐药株的gyrA、gyrB、parE和parC基因喹喏酮耐药决定区域（QRDR）进行PCR扩增及测序。结果147株肺炎链球菌中,对红霉素的耐药率为89．1％;青霉素不敏感肺炎链球菌（MIC≥4mg／L）占3．4％;对头孢呋辛、头孢曲松、美罗培南、左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星的耐药率分别为26．5％、1．4％、3．4%、1．4％、0．7％;所有分离株对万古霉素、利奈唑胺敏感。与2006-2007年分离株相比,2010-2012年临床分离株对青霉素、头孢呋辛耐药率下降,对红霉素、头孢曲松耐药率变化不大,出现了少数左氧氟沙星及莫西沙星耐药株。对喹诺酮耐药株进行基因测序发现1菌株有gyrA突变（Asn167-Ile）和ParE突变（Ile460～Val）;另1菌株则有ParC突变（Ser81-Gly;Asn94-Asp）。结论南京地区肺炎链球菌对红霉素耐药率居高不下,对青霉素仍较敏感,出现了少数莫西沙星、左氧氟沙星耐药株。喹诺酮耐药株有gyrA、parE和parC的QRDR突变。     

粪肠球菌Ⅱ型拓扑异构酶基因突变与耐氟喹诺酮类药物关系的研究

目的 检测粪肠球菌对氟喹诺酮类药物的敏感性,探讨Ⅱ型拓扑异构酶基因突变与耐氟喹诺酮类药物的关系.方法 用二倍琼脂稀释法检测6种氟喹诺酮类药物对60株粪肠球菌临床分离株的体外抗菌活性,随机筛选出11株对环丙沙星不同程度耐药菌,PCR扩增gyrA,gyrB,parC,parE基因的喹诺酮耐药决定区(QRDR),产物测序后分析.结果 6种药物的相对抗粪肠球菌活性(MIC50,MIC90)从强到弱为:妥舒沙星＞加替沙星,司帕沙星＞左氧氟沙星＞氧氟沙星,环丙沙星;以妥舒沙星抗菌活性最强,氧氟沙星和环丙沙星抗菌活性最差;序列比较发现,有9株耐药株Ⅱ型拓扑异构酶基因发生突变,突变发生在gyrA基因(6株)和parC基因(9株),其中编码gyrA的Ser83→Ile,Arg和编码parC的Ser80→Ile,Arg的密码子表现出高频突变,gyrB和parE编码的氨基酸序列没有改变;未发现gyrA突变单独存在,同时具gyrA和parC突变的MIC值是仅具parC突变菌株MIC值的4倍以上.结论 氟喹诺酮类抗菌药新品种妥舒沙星、加替沙星和司帕沙星的抗粪肠球菌活性较老一代药物更强;粪肠球菌对老一代氟喹诺酮类药物存在不同程度的耐药;gyrA基因83,87位突变及parC基因80,84位突变都可引起粪肠球菌对氟喹诺酮类药物产生耐药,但以parC基因80住突变为主;低耐药株往往是parC基因单位点突变,高耐药株同时合并有gyrA基因双位点突变.     

屎肠球菌临床株对氟喹诺酮耐药机制的研究

目的 探讨临床分离屎肠球菌对氟喹诺酮类（FQs）抗菌药物的耐药机制。方法 用琼脂二倍稀释法测定应用多重耐药泵抑制剂利血平前后，6种FQs抗菌药物对临床分离的35株屎肠球菌的MIC；PCR扩增耐药株和敏感株parC和gyrA喹诺酮耐药决定区（QRDR）并测序。结果 应用利血平之后，诺氟沙星、环丙沙星、氧氟沙星、左氧氟沙星、加替沙星、莫西沙星对35株屎肠球菌MIC下降1／2或1／2以上的株数依次为35、29、1、0、6、2。随机挑选了1株FQs敏感菌和5株FQs耐药菌进行parC基因和gyrA基因QRDR序列分析。5株FQs耐药株全部具有parC和gyrA双靶位突变，ParC氨基酸替代类型为Ser-80→Ile（4株）或Arg（1株），GyrA为Ser-83→Ile（1株）、Glu-87→Lys（2株）或Gly（2株）。敏感株的QRDR没有氨基酸的改变。结论 靶位改变和主动外排共同构成屎肠球菌临床株对FQs的耐药机制。     

结核分枝杆菌gyrA基因突变与氟喹诺酮类药物体外最低抑菌浓度的关系

目的探讨结核分枝杆菌gyrA基因突变与氟喹诺酮类药物体外最低抑菌浓度(MIC)的关系。方法收集640例痰结核分枝杆菌阳性临床分离株,用探针熔解曲线法筛选gyrA基因耐药决定区突变株,对其gyrA基因耐药决定区进行测序,并检测氧氟沙星、左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星及加替沙星对不同突变位点菌株的MIC,分析其差异。结果探针熔解曲线法筛选出gyrA突变株共45株(7.03%),其中90位点突变15株(33.33%)、94位点突变26株(57.78%)、91位点突变4株(8.89%)。90位点突变菌株中,氧氟沙星高水平耐药2株,左氧氟沙星无耐药,莫西沙星低水平耐药3株、高水平耐药2株,加替沙星高水平耐药3株; 91位点突变菌株中,氧氟沙星、左氧氟沙星无耐药,莫西沙星高水平耐药2株,加替沙星高水平耐药1株; 94位点突变菌株中,氧氟沙星低水平耐药4株、高水平耐药7株,左氧氟沙星低水平耐药7株,莫西沙星低水平耐药2株、高水平耐药13株,加替沙星低水平耐药3株、高水平耐药14株。除左氧氟沙星外, 90位点突变菌株对其他3种药物易出现高水平耐药; 91位点突变菌株对莫西沙星易出现高水平耐药; 94位点突变菌株对莫西沙星、加替沙星多为高水平耐药,其中天冬氨酸(Asp)→天冬酰胺(Asn)和Asp→甘氨酸(Gly)突变类型的菌株更易出现。结论结核分枝杆菌gyrA基因突变类型与氟喹诺酮类药物MIC相关,可为临床用药提供重要参考。     

南京地区鲍曼不动杆菌喹诺酮类药物耐药基因突变的研究

目的 调查南京地区鲍曼不动杆菌对喹诺酮类药物的耐药情况,并研究其耐药机制。方法 在南京地区的医院随机收集了73株鲍曼不动杆菌,历时9个月。定量肉汤稀释法测定菌株对左氧氟沙星、环丙沙星和加替沙星3种喹诺酮类药物的MIC,PCR扩增gyrA基因和parC基因并进行酶切分析,选取部分PCR扩增产物进行测序。结果 鲍曼不动杆菌对左氧氟沙星耐药率为39．7％（29／73）;对环丙沙星耐药率为76.7％（56／73）;对加替沙星耐药率为32．9％（24／73）。对3种喹诺酮类药物均耐药的有16株,占21．9％。PCR—RFLP显示,对gyrA基因,耐药株有80．4％（45／56）不能被Hinf Ⅰ酶切,敏感株100％（17／17）被Hinf Ⅰ酶切;对parC基因,耐药株73．2％（41／56）不能被Hinf Ⅰ酶切,敏感株有88.2％（15／17）被Hinf Ⅰ酶切。测序结果：耐药株中的gyrA和parC基因存在突变,敏感株中则不存在突变,并在耐药株中发现gyrA和parC基因新的点突变,Genbank号分别为DQ270238和DQ270239。结论 南京地区鲍曼不动杆菌对喹诺酮类药物耐药情况严重,其耐药与gyrA和parC基因突变有关。     

大肠埃希菌临床菌株对氟喹诺酮类的耐药机制

DNA旋转酶编码基因（gyrA和gyrB）和拓扑异构酶编码基因（parC和parE）的染色体突变、多重药物外排泵AcrAB表达水平升高以及存在质粒介导aCC（6’）-Ib-cr和各种qnr基因等耐药机制均可导致氟喹诺酮类药物对大肠埃希菌的MIC升高。已有报道环丙沙星、加替沙星、左氧氟沙星和诺氟沙星对氟喹诺酮类药物耐药大肠埃希菌临床菌株的MIC高,并有很大差异。作者等对153株流行病学信息已知的菌株中选择78株代表不同氟喹诺酮类药物MIC范围的菌株,进行上述各种喹诺酮类药物耐药基因测序,发现：①所有氟喹诺酮类药物耐药菌株（58株）均存在gyrA突变;     

铜绿假单胞菌对喹诺酮类药物耐药机制的研究

目的研究30株铜绿假单胞菌对喹诺酮类药物的耐药机制。方法用PCR及测序法研究拓扑异构酶Ⅱ和Ⅳ的gyrA、gyrB、parC和parE基因;同时用琼脂稀释法测定环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星的MIC和加入羰基氢氯苯腙(CCCP)后的MIC,以确定存在外排机制。结果菌株中23株(76.7%)有gyrA突变,主要为Thr-83→Ile,第87位突变3株;10株(33.3%)parC基因突变,其中5株为Ser-87→Leu,3株第91位突变;gyrB和parE突变较少见。CCCP能显著降低环丙沙星和左氧氟沙星的MIC。结论铜绿假单胞菌的耐药性日趋严重,两类拓扑异构酶基因突变和外排泵机制是铜绿假单胞菌耐喹诺酮类药物的主要机制。     

氟喹诺酮类药物体外多步诱导鲍曼不动杆菌产生交叉耐药性的研究

摘要：目的：探讨临床分离的鲍曼不动杆菌敏感株在诱导条件下对氟喹诺酮类药物交叉耐药情况。 方法： 采用环丙沙星(CIP)、左氧氟沙星(LVX)和加替沙星(GAT)分别对5株鲍曼不动杆菌进行体外多步诱导,采用琼脂平板2倍稀释法测定诱导前后CIP、LVX及GAT对鲍曼不动杆菌的最低抑菌浓度(MIC)。PCR扩增诱导前后菌株gyrA和parC基因并进行酶切分析,选取PCR扩增产物进行测序。 结果：5株鲍曼不动杆菌敏感菌株经体外诱导均产生了耐药现象;鲍曼不动杆菌经氟喹诺酮类药物诱导后MIC显著升高（MIC由0.025～2 μg/mL升高至8～128 μg/mL）;经1种药物诱导耐药后对另外2种药物也产生了不同程度的耐药;PCR-RFLP显示,诱导前菌株gyrA基因、parC基因均能被HinfⅠ酶切,诱导后均不能被HinfⅠ酶切;测序发现诱导后菌株的gyrA基因和parC基因均存在突变。 结论：在体外证实鲍曼不动杆菌对氟喹诺酮类药物逐步耐药的进程,并发现诱导可使菌株gyrA和parC基因产生突变。     

国产加替沙星等多种抗菌药物对常见病原菌的体外抗菌活性

目的 研究国产加替沙星与对照药物对常见病原菌的抗菌活性。方法 收集2003年9月-2003年12月自我院分离的307株细菌。采用NCCLS2003年规定的琼脂稀释法测定国产加替沙星和其他8种抗菌药物对这307株菌的MIC并判断结果。结果 氟喹诺酮类对于肺炎链球菌有良好抗菌活性，敏感率为93．5％～100％，其中莫西沙星的抗菌活性是加替沙星的2～4倍，加替沙星的抗菌活性是左氧氟沙星的4倍；莫西沙星、加替沙星的抗菌活性不受青霉素、大环内酯类耐药性的影响。所有β-溶血性链球菌对青霉素、头孢呋辛、头孢曲松均呈敏感。4种氟喹喏酮类对该菌的抗菌活性依次为：加替沙星=莫西沙星〉左氧氟沙星=环丙沙星。MSSA对头孢呋辛和头孢曲松、加替沙星、莫西沙星100％敏感，仅50％的MSSA菌株对阿奇霉素敏感。4种氟喹喏酮类对肠球菌属的活性均较低。流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌产β内酰胺酶率分别为12．9％和72．7％。头孢呋辛、头孢曲松、阿奇霉素、4种氟喹喏酮类对这2种细菌的抗菌活性均很高。头孢呋辛、头孢曲松对产ESBLs的大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯菌无抗菌活性。大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯菌对4种氟喹喏酮类的敏感率为30％～50％。加替沙星、左氧氟沙星对铜绿假单胞菌的抗菌活性是环丙沙星活性的1／4。结论 国产加替沙星对常见社区获得性呼吸道病原菌有良好的抗菌活性，对一些医院内病原菌也有一定抗菌活性。     

淋病奈瑟球菌耐氟喹诺酮类药物与gyrA和parC基因突变的相关性研究

目的研究淋病奈瑟球菌耐氟喹诺酮类药物与gyrA和parC基因突变的相关性。方法采用E试验测定30株临床分离的淋病奈瑟球菌对环丙沙星的MIC。PCR法检测30株淋病奈瑟球菌喹诺酮耐药决定区（QRDR）相关gyrA和parC基因并测序分析。结果淋病奈瑟球菌对环丙沙星的耐药率达到100％，所有耐氟喹诺酮菌均存在gyrA基因双位点突变，20株高水平耐氟喹诺酮菌（MIC≥mg／L）均存在gyrA基因双位点突变和parC单（或双）位点突变。结论gyrA和parC基因突变在淋病奈瑟菌对氟喹诺酮类药物耐药中起着重要作用，gyrA和parC基因同时突变会导致耐药性增强。     

Prevalence of Single Mutations in Topoisomerase Type II Genes among Levofloxacin-Susceptible Clinical Strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae Isolated in the United States in 1992 to 1996 and 1999 to 2000

Levofloxacin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae is rare, requiring at least two mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining region (QRDR) of topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase. The prevalence of single QRDR mutations in these genes is unknown. Of 9,438 levofloxacin-susceptible pneumococci from the TRUST 4 surveillance study (1999-2000), 528 strains (MICs of 0.5 to 2.0 microg/ml) were selected for analysis. For comparison, 214 levofloxacin-susceptible strains (MICs of 0.5 to 1 microg/ml) isolated between 1992 and 1996 were analyzed. Oligonucleotide probe assay and DNA sequencing were used to detect QRDR mutations leading to changes at Ser79 and Asp83 in ParC, Ser81 in GyrA, and Asp435 in ParE, the most frequently found substitutions among levofloxacin-resistant strains. Among the 1992 to 1996 isolates only one strain (levofloxacin MIC, 1 microg/ml) had a mutation (Ser79 to Phe in ParC). No single mutations were found among 270 TRUST 4 strains with levofloxacin MICs of 0.5 microg/ml. Among 244 strains for which levofloxacin MICs were 1 microg/ml, 15 strains (6.1%) had a parC mutation and 3 strains (1.2%) had a parE mutation. Of 14 strains for which levofloxacin MICs were 2 microg/ml, 10 strains (71%) had a parC mutation; no parE mutations were found. No gyrA mutations were detected. It was estimated that 4.5% of the 9,438 levofloxacin-susceptible TRUST 4 isolates (MICs, < or =0.06 to 2 microg/ml) had a single parC or parE QRDR mutation. Although there has been an increase in the prevalence of single-step mutants, the increase may have been overestimated due in part to differences in geographical distribution for the two sets of isolates.     

耐左氧氟沙星大肠埃希菌gyrA/gyrB/parC/parE基因突变研究

目的了解耐氟喹诺酮大肠埃希菌gyrA／gyrB／parC／parE基因突变情况。方法用Kirby—Bauer琼脂扩散法筛选耐左氧氟沙星大肠埃希菌;采用聚合酶链反应（PCR）对gyrA／gyrB／parC／parE基因进行扩增,并进行PCR扩增产物直接双向测序,分析上述基因突变情况。结果PCR扩增耐菌株gyrA／gyrB／parC／parE基因,获得目的片段,测序结果显示,氟喹诺酮耐药基因突变集中在gyrA基因83、87位ser→Leu、Asp→Asn突变;parC基因55位Ser→Leu突变,部分菌株尚存在62位Gln→Glu第二突变点;未发现gyrB、parE突变。结论靶位点gyrA和parC的改变,是本地大肠埃希菌对氟喹诺酮类耐药的主要机制。     

Mutations in topoisomerase genes of fluoroquinolone-resistant salmonellae in Hong Kong

A total of 88 salmonella isolates (72 clinical isolates for which the ciprofloxacin MIC was >0.06 microg/ml, 15 isolates for which the ciprofloxacin MIC was < or =0.06 microg/ml, and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium ATCC 13311) were studied for the presence of genetic alterations in four quinolone resistance genes, gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE, by multiplex PCR amplimer conformation analysis. The genetic alterations were confirmed by direct nucleotide sequencing. A considerable number of strains had a mutation in parC, the first to be reported in salmonellae. Seven of the isolates sensitive to 0.06 micro g of ciprofloxacin per ml had a novel mutation at codon 57 of parC (Tyr57-->Ser) which was also found in 29 isolates for which ciprofloxacin MICs were >0.06 micro g/ml. Thirty-two isolates had a single gyrA mutation (Ser83-->Phe, Ser83-->Tyr, Asp87-->Asn, Asp87-->Tyr, or Asp87-->Gly), 34 had both a gyrA mutation and a parC mutation (29 isolates with a parC mutation of Tyr57-->Ser and 5 isolates with a parC mutation of Ser80-->Arg). Six isolates which were isolated recently (from 1998 to 2001) were resistant to 4 micro g of ciprofloxacin per ml. Two of these isolates had double gyrA mutations (Ser83-->Phe and Asp87-->Asn) and a parC mutation (Ser80-->Arg) (MICs, 8 to 32 microg/ml), and four of these isolates had double gyrA mutations (Ser83-->Phe and Asp87-->Gly), one parC mutation (Ser80-->Arg), and one parE mutation (Ser458-->Pro) (MICs, 16 to 64 micro g/ml). All six of these isolates and those with a Ser80-->Arg parC mutation were S. enterica serotype Typhimurium. One S. enterica serotype Typhi isolate harbored a single gyrA mutation (Ser83-->Phe), and an S. enterica serotype Paratyphi A isolate harbored a gyrA mutation (Ser83-->Tyr) and a parC mutation (Tyr57-->Ser); both of these isolates had decreased susceptibilities to the fluoroquinolones. The MICs of ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and sparfloxacin were in general the lowest of those of the six fluoroquinolones tested. Isolates with a single gyrA mutation were less resistant to fluoroquinolones than those with an additional parC mutation (Tyr57-->Ser or Ser80-->Arg), while those with double gyrA mutations were more resistant.     

Infrequent occurrence of single mutations in topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase genes among US levofloxacin-susceptible clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from nine institutions (1999-2003)

OBJECTIVES: Prevalence of single quinolone-resistance determining region (QRDR) mutations in Streptococcus pneumoniae was studied from nine institutions over 5 years to track the incidence of single QRDR mutations. METHODS: All 1106 levofloxacin-susceptible pneumococci (MICs < or = 2.0 mg/L) identified from 1112 total isolates (99.5% susceptibility) in TRUST 3 (1999), TRUST 5 (2001) and TRUST 7 (2003) surveillance studies from the same nine hospitals in nine states were screened for QRDR mutations. Using pyrosequencing, the strains were screened for mutations corresponding to hot spots Asp-78, Ser-79 and Asp-83 in ParC; Asp-80, Ser-81 and Glu-85 in GyrA; Asp-435 in ParE and Asp-435 in GyrB. DNA sequencing of QRDRs was performed to confirm mutations. RESULTS: No QRDR mutations were found in any of the isolates with levofloxacin MICs < or = 0.5 mg/L and no gyrA or gyrB QRDR mutations were found in any of the screened isolates (MICs < or = 2 mg/L). Four single-step QRDR mutants with the following amino acid substitutions were found: ParE Asp-435 to Asn (isolated in 1999 in Colorado); ParC Asp-83 to Asn (isolated in 2001 in Kentucky); ParC Ser-79 to Phe (isolated in 2003 in Indiana) and ParC Ser-79 to Tyr (isolated in 2003 in California). These non-clonal strains had levofloxacin MICs of 1 mg/L and were non-susceptible to ciprofloxacin (MIC 2-4 mg/L). CONCLUSIONS: Overall prevalence of single QRDR mutations in levofloxacin-susceptible S. pneumoniae with MICs of < or = 2 mg/L was 0.4% (4/1106) and has remained <1% within nine institutions over 5 years (1999-2003).     

Genetic analyses of mutations contributing to fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Twenty-one clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae showing reduced susceptibility or resistance to fluoroquinolones were characterized by serotype, antimicrobial susceptibility, and genetic analyses of the quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDRs) of gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE. Five strains were resistant to three or more classes of antimicrobial agents. In susceptibility profiles for gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, ofloxacin, sparfloxacin, and trovafloxacin, 14 isolates had intermediate- or high-level resistance to all fluoroquinolones tested except gemifloxacin (no breakpoints assigned). Fluoroquinolone resistance was not associated with serotype or with resistance to other antimicrobial agents. Mutations in the QRDRs of these isolates were more heterogeneous than those previously reported for mutants selected in vitro. Eight isolates had amino acid changes at sites other than ParC/S79 and GyrA/S81; several strains contained mutations in gyrB, parE, or both loci. Contributions to fluoroquinolone resistance by individual amino acid changes, including GyrB/E474K, ParE/E474K, and ParC/A63T, were confirmed by genetic transformation of S. pneumoniae R6. Mutations in gyrB were important for resistance to gatifloxacin but not moxifloxacin, and mutation of gyrA was associated with resistance to moxifloxacin but not gatifloxacin, suggesting differences in the drug-target interactions of the two 8-methoxyquinolones. The positions of amino acid changes within the four genes affected resistance more than did the total number of QRDR mutations. However, the effect of a specific mutation varied significantly depending on the agent tested. These data suggest that the heterogeneity of mutations will likely increase as pneumococci are exposed to novel fluoroquinolone structures, complicating the prediction of cross-resistance within this class of antimicrobial agents.     

DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV mutations associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in Proteus mirabilis

Mutations associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Proteus mirabilis were determined by genetic analysis of the quinolone resistance-determining region (QRDR) of gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE. This study included the P. mirabilis type strain ATCC 29906 and 29 clinical isolates with reduced susceptibility (MIC, 0.5 to 2 microg/ml) or resistance (MIC, > or =4 microg/ml) to ciprofloxacin. Susceptibility profiles for ciprofloxacin, clinafloxacin, gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and trovafloxacin were correlated with amino acid changes in the QRDRs. Decreased susceptibility and resistance were associated with double mutations involving both gyrA (S83R or -I) and parC (S80R or -I). Among these double mutants, MICs of ciprofloxacin varied from 1 to 16 microg/ml, indicating that additional factors, such as drug efflux or porin changes, also contribute to the level of resistance. For ParE, a single conservative change of V364I was detected in seven strains. An unexpected result was the association of gyrB mutations with high-level resistance to fluoroquinolones in 12 of 20 ciprofloxacin-resistant isolates. Changes in GyrB included S464Y (six isolates), S464F (three isolates), and E466D (two isolates). A three-nucleotide insertion, resulting in an additional lysine residue between K455 and A456, was detected in gyrB of one strain. Unlike any other bacterial species analyzed to date, mutation of gyrB appears to be a frequent event in the acquisition of fluoroquinolone resistance among clinical isolates of P. mirabilis.     

In vitro induction and selection of fluoroquinolone-resistant mutants of Streptococcus pyogenes strains with multiple emm types

OBJECTIVES: To perform a systematic analysis of point mutations in the quinolone resistance determining regions (QRDRs) of the DNA gyrase and topoisomerase genes of emm type 6 and other emm types of Streptococcus pyogenes strains after in vitro exposure to stepwise increasing concentrations of levofloxacin. METHODS: Twelve parent strains of S. pyogenes, each with a different emm type, were chosen for stepwise exposure to increasing levels of levofloxacin followed by selection of resistant mutants. The QRDRs of gyrA, gyrB, parC and parE correlating to mutants with increased MICs were analysed for point mutations. RESULTS: Multiple mutants with significantly increased MICs were generated from each strain. The amino acid substitutions identified were consistent regardless of emm type and were similar to the mechanisms of resistance reported in clinical isolates of S. pyogenes. The number of induction/selection cycles required for the emergence of key point mutations in gyrA and parC was variable among strains. For each parent-mutant set, when MIC increased, serine-81 of gyrA and serine-79 of parC were the primary targets for amino acid substitutions. No point mutations were found in the QRDRs of gyrB and parE in any of the resistant mutants sequenced. CONCLUSIONS: Despite its intrinsic polymorphism in the QRDR of parC, emm type 6 is not more likely to develop high-level resistance to fluoroquinolones when compared with other emm types. All emm types seem equally inducible to high-level fluoroquinolone resistance.     

Cross-resistance,relatedness and allele analysis of fluoroquinolone-resistant US clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae (1998-2000)

OBJECTIVES: To detect relatedness among 68 (0.5%) of 13 795 US clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from the TRUST 3 (1998-1999) and TRUST 4 (1999-2000) surveillance studies that were resistant to levofloxacin (MIC > or = 8 mg/l). METHODS: All levofloxacin-resistant isolates were analysed by broth microdilution reference method for susceptibility to four fluoroquinolones, DNA sequencing of quinolone resistance determining region (QRDR) of topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase genes, serotyping, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). RESULTS: All levofloxacin-resistant isolates were ciprofloxacin resistant (MIC > or = 4 mg/l, FDA breakpoint) and non-susceptible to gatifloxacin (MIC > or = 2 mg/l); 62 were non-susceptible to moxifloxacin (MIC > or = 2 mg/l). Resistant isolates were in 48 (20%) of 238 institutions in 29 states. Three institutions had levofloxacin-resistant isolates in both surveillance studies. Among the resistant isolates were 17 serotypes and 48 different PFGE patterns. Fourteen isolates had PFGE patterns closely related to the Spain(23F)-1 clone; one strain had a PFGE pattern closely related to the French(9V)-3 clone. All levofloxacin-resistant isolates had two or more mutations within the QRDR of parC, parE, gyrA and gyrB. CONCLUSIONS: US levofloxacin-resistant S. pneumoniae isolates were rare and most were unrelated with minimal clonal spread, and were associated with multiple QRDR mutations with extensive cross-resistance noted among fluoroquinolones.     

In vitro activity of sitafloxacin against clinical strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae with defined amino acid substitutions in QRDRs of gyrase A and topoisomerase IV

OBJECTIVES: Fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae are increasing worldwide rapidly. In vitro activities of sitafloxacin were evaluated against clinical isolates of S. pneumoniae resistant to levofloxacin (MIC of levofloxacin > or = 4 mg/L), which were characterized genetically. METHODS: The quinolone resistance determining regions (QRDRs) of gyrA, gyrB, parC and parE of these strains were analysed by PCR-based sequencing. MICs of sitafloxacin and other quinolones were determined by a microdilution broth method. RESULTS: All 18 strains had at least one amino acid substitution in the QRDRs of GyrA and ParC, which included Ser-81-->Tyr/Phe and Glu-85-->Lys in GyrA and Ser-79-->Phe/Ile/Tyr, Asp-83-->Tyr, Asn-91-->Asp, Ser-107-->Phe, Lys-137-->Asn and Ala-142-->Ser in ParC. Most isolates had Asp-435-->Asn/Ile-460-->Val/Ala-596-->Thr substitutions in ParE, while no amino acid substitution in GyrB was noted in all isolates. Ten isolates for which levofloxacin MICs were 16 or 32 mg/L had multiple mutations in both GyrA and ParC. The MIC80 value of sitafloxacin for levofloxacin-resistant isolates was 0.25 mg/L. The range of MICs of sitafloxacin for isolates resistant to levofloxacin (MIC 4-32 mg/L) was 0.016-0.5 mg/L. CONCLUSIONS: These findings warrant further studies to evaluate the usefulness of sitafloxacin in the treatment of levofloxacin-resistant S. pneumoniae infection.