Obesity in HIV-infection: dietary correlates

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of obesity among a cohort of individuals living with HIV infection, and to determine differences in dietary intake among those subjects who are normal weight, overweight, and obese. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study among participants enrolled in the Nutrition for Healthy Living (NFHL) study. SETTING: Eligible participants included HIV-positive adults living in the greater Boston, MA and Providence, RI, areas. Subjects and Measures of Outcome: In total, 321 (265 males, 56 females) subjects were studied. Body composition measurements, demographic and health data, and fasting blood samples were analyzed. Dietary intake was assessed by three-day food records. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). RESULTS: 13% of males and 29% females were found to be obese. Energy intake per kilogram decreased by body mass index (BMI) category for both men and women (p <0.05). Although not different between groups, mean total fat and saturated fat intakes were above recommendations for both men and women in all BMI categories, while total grams dietary fiber decreased as BMI increased. Individuals in all BMI groups had micronutrient intakes below the Dietary Reference Intakes. Serum markers of insulin resistance were significantly different by BMI category among men and women, as well as triglycerides and total cholesterol for the males. CONCLUSIONS: Obesity and diet in individuals living with HIV-infection needs to be addressed, as quality of dietary intake may have future implications regarding cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and other health risks associated with overweight and obesity.     

Nutrition status of the elderly in Anogia,Crete, Greece.

General health and nutritional status of 167 free-living elderly Greek (aged 65-91 years) were assessed. The most prevalent diseases/symptoms encountered were related to respiratory, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal and vascular systems (hypertension). Most subjects were socially active. Body mass index was < 20 and > 25 Kg/m2 in 7 and 57% of the subjects, respectively. Systolic blood pressure was significantly higher in women than in men, and as a group, 18 and 42%, respectively, had diastolic blood pressures > 90 and systolic blood pressures > 160 mmHg. Anemia and hypoalbuminemia were detected in < 5% of the population. Total fat intake was 40-45% of total energy intake and most of it came from monounsaturated fat. Hypercholesterolemia (> 6 mmol/L) was present in 32% of subjects. The percentages of men who smoked (66%) or drank (68%) were significantly higher than those of women (2 and 1%, respectively). Dietary intake data were compared with US recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for elderly. Daily energy and protein intakes were lower than the US RDA levels; calcium intake was > 50% of the US RDA, while magnesium and vitamin B6 levels were < 50% of the US RDA. Vitamin C intake was much higher than that of the US RDA. Mean thiamin, vitamin A, riboflavin and iron intakes were below the US RDA, while fiber intake was < 50% of the corresponding US estimate. Phosphorus was higher than the US RDA in men, while lower for women. Sodium intakes exceeded those recommended, while potassium levels were higher than those recommended in males, and lower in females.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

山西农大学生膳食的调查分析

目的：了解高校学生的膳食供应是否能满足其发育与生活、学习的营养需求。方法：自1994－1997年连续4次对山西农业大学的510名大学生的膳食消费结构进行了调查分析。结果：热能男生平均为9.4－76MJ，达到RDA的86％－90％；女生平均为5.8－7.6MJ，达到RDA的60％－79％。蛋白质男生平均80－85g，达RDA的100％－106％；女生平均49－69g，达RDA的70％－98％。钙的摄入量男生稳定在500mg上下，女生在430mg左右，分别为RDA的62％及54％。铁在男女分别达到23－25mg及18－23mg，超过RDA的要求。B族维生素的摄入视面粉加工精度明显有别.结论：能量来源以蛋白质、脂肪及碳水化合物三者分配，男生分别为16％，16％及68％，女生分别为14％，13％及73％，其比例符合RDA要求。蛋白质来自动物源的尚达不到RDA要求的1／3标准。     

Evaluation of nutritional status of adult middle class healthy subjects. Energy and protein intake, anthropometry, blood biochemical tests, and immunocompetence tests]

Nutritional status was assessed in 151 middle-class healthy adult individuals (69 medical students, 18-29 y, 34 males, 35 females); 48 university personnel, 30-49 y, 24 males, 24 females; and their older relatives, 34 subjects, 50-79 y, 19 males, 15 females) living in Botucatu, S. Paulo. Methods included anthropometric measurements, energy and protein intakes, blood biochemical analyses and cutaneous delayed hypersensitivity tests. Anthropometric measurements showed higher values in men, with the exception of the triceps skinfold thickness (higher in women) and of the arm fat area (higher in the older age female groups); aging seemed to be associated with increases of weight, arm muscle variables and with arm fat accumulation in women and with increases of arm muscle variables in men. The values for anthropometric measurements were in general higher than those found in other Brazilian studies; on the other hand, they approximate to but do not entirely agree with the data representative of the international referential adult population: differences were mainly concerned with body weight and upper arm muscle parameters, which were lower in our sample. As regards energy intake, values found in subjects under 50 years of age were lower than the recommended dietary allowances; averages found for protein intake were above the level recommended by WHO/FAO/UNU (1985). The mean values for serum proteins and lipids were similar to those of referential data. As regards the hypersensitivity tests, it was found that none of the individuals challenged with four antigens (PPD, Candidin, Vaccinia and phytohemagglutinin) presented less than two positive skin reactions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Plant and animal protein intake and its association with overweight and obesity among the Belgian population

The objective of the present study was to assess animal and plant protein intakes in the Belgian population and to examine their relationship with overweight and obesity (OB). The subjects participated in the Belgian National Food Consumption Survey conducted in 2004. Food consumption was assessed by using two non-consecutive 24?h dietary recalls. About 3083 participants (?≥?15 years of age; 1546 males, 1537 females) provided completed dietary information. Animal protein intake (47?g/d) contributed more to total protein intakes of 72?g/d than plant protein intake, which accounted for 25?g/d. Meat and meat products were the main contributors to total animal protein intakes (53?%), whereas cereals and cereal products contributed most to plant protein intake (54?%). Males had higher animal and plant protein intakes than females (P?相似文献   

Nutrient supplement use by healthy elderly

As part of a nutritional status survey of 691 non-institutionalized men and women aged 60 years and older, supplement use was reported by 45% of the males and 55% of the females. Supplement use was more prevalent in females than males at each age decade. Vitamins C and E were the most commonly used supplements. Mean dietary nutrient intakes were calculated from a 3-day food diary. The percentage of dietary intakes falling below 2/3 1980 Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) was comparable for users and non-users of supplements. Use of supplements markedly decreased the proportion of subjects with inadequate nutrient intake (using a 2/3 RDA criterion), particularly for vitamins B6, B12, and D, folic acid, and calcium. However, for both males and females, potentially excessive intake levels (10 times the RDA) of thiamin, vitamin A, and vitamin E supplementation were observed.     

Nutrient supplement use by healthy elderly.

As part of a nutritional status survey of 691 non-institutionalized men and women aged 60 years and older, supplement use was reported by 45% of the males and 55% of the females. Supplement use was more prevalent in females than males at each age decade. Vitamins C and E were the most commonly used supplements. Mean dietary nutrient intakes were calculated from a 3-day food diary. The percentage of dietary intakes falling below 2/3 1980 Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) was comparable for users and non-users of supplements. Use of supplements markedly decreased the proportion of subjects with inadequate nutrient intake (using a 2/3 RDA criterion), particularly for vitamins B6, B12, and D, folic acid, and calcium. However, for both males and females, potentially excessive intake levels (10 times the RDA) of thiamin, vitamin A, and vitamin E supplementation were observed.     

Acute stress modifies food choice in Wistar male and female rats

The present study investigates the effects of acute stress (15 min of swimming/day for three consecutive days) applied at the onset of the dark phase, just before the usual feeding time, on energy intake and more specifically on macronutrient selection, in male and female Wistar rats. The influence of stress regarding corticosterone and insulin kinetics was also examined. In the two experiments (1: food ad lib and 2: two feeding periods/day), three consecutive days of stress reduced daily body weight gain for both sexes. In the first experiment, the reduction in energy intake only occurred during the first 3h after stress. In males the 3h decrease in energy intake affected the three macronutrients, while in females, only the fat intake was decreased. In the second experiment, the stress only affected intake during the first feeding period. Protein, fat and CHO intakes were reduced in males, while in females only the protein and fat intakes were decreased. Unlike males, an increase in fat ingestion was observed in females; this occurred 6h after stress in experiment 1 and during the second feeding period 5h after stress in experiment 2. Stress raised plasma corticosterone levels in both sexes, while plasma insulin levels were decreased. These results demonstrate that the response to stress differed in males and females regarding macronutrient selection. Moreover, stress induced not only a quantitative effect on energy intake but also a qualitative one.     

Effects of gender, ethnicity and place of residence on nutrient intake among elderly residents of southwestern Louisiana

The purpose of this study was to examine the joint effects of gender, ethnicity, seasonal variations and place of residence on nutrient intake among elderly residents of Southwestern Louisiana. Three hundred and fifty-one elderly subjects volunteered and completed all four interviews evenly spaced throughout the year. Multiple analysis of covariance and hierarchal log linear regression were used to examine the joint effects of the independent variables on nutrient intake of eight nutrients; calories, protein, iron, calcium, vitamin C, vitamin A, riboflavin and thiamin. There were differences between males and females for the intake of calories, protein, iron and vitamin C. Over time, there were differences between rural and urban subjects. Rural subjects showed greater seasonal variability than urban subjects. In addition, the three ethnic groups showed different patterns of seasonal variability. When the nutrient intake data were dichotomized at 68% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, we found that Blacks were more likely to report values below 68% of the RDA than were either Caucasian group. Also, males were more likely to report values below 68% of the RDA than were females. This study illustrates the need for assessing the effects of multiple factors on nutrient intakes. It also shows that there can be significant differences even between nominally similar ethnic groups. With the increased nutritional risk that the elderly face, further research is needed to clarify and extend these results.     

Chronic disease risk factors in vitamin/mineral supplement users and nonusers in a farm population

Dietary, anthropometric, and chronic disease risk factors (CDRF) in vitamin/mineral supplement users (U) and non-users (NU) were measured in a farm population consisting of 162 subjects (46% females and 54% males; 20-79 years of age, mean age: 52 years). Subjects were white, except for two black males. Supplements were used by 62 subjects (38%); 47% of females and 31% of males used supplements; 43% of subjects over 50 years of age and 32% of subjects age 50 or under used supplements. Both dietary intake and energy expenditure were measured using 4-day records. Indices of adiposity included body weight, BMI, and estimated body fat. Total cholesterol (TC), high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), serum ferritin, hemoglobin, hematocrit, zinc, copper, and vitamin C were based on 12-hr fasting blood samples. Dietary intake (excluding supplements) for vitamin/mineral U was greater than NU for vitamin C (p = 0.006), thiamin (p = 0.01), riboflavin (p = 0.03), niacin (p = 0.02), folic acid (p = 0.001), vitamin B6 (p = 0.01), and magnesium (p = 0.019). Vitamin C levels were significantly higher and the sum of four skinfolds was significantly lower among U than NU. In this population, 24% of males and 18% of females had TC levels over 240 mg%; 8% of both males and females had blood pressures (BP) greater than 140/90 mm Hg, while 49% of males and 46% of females had BP between 120/80 and 140/90; and 71% of males were more than 25% fat, and 56% of females were more than 35% fat. Despite the high prevalence of CDRF, there were no significant differences between supplement U and NU.     

Determination of dietary habits as a risk factor of cardiovascular heart disease in Turkish adolescents

Summary Background To investigate dietary habits and evaluate these with regard to cardiovascular risk status in Turkish adolescents aged 12–19 years. Methods A total of 300 adolescents, 135 males and 165 females aged between 12 and 19, were included in the study. Dietary intake was determined by using 3–day food records (including 1 weekend day). Adolescents smoking habits and familial chronic diseases were recorded. The values obtained for energy and nutrient intakes were compared with RDA and DRI and recommendations given by AHA. Results The mean energy intakes of male and female subjects were 1964 ± 723 kcal and 1804 ± 486 kcal respectively. According to NHANES III, age–standardized (CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) prevalence of overweight indicated that 20.7% among male and 17.5% among female adolescents were at risk for becoming overweight. The prevalence of premature CHD family history was found to be 9.6% for males and 11.5 % for females. The prevalence of current smoking was found to be 22.2 % for males and 18.2 % for females. In addition, 29.6% of the males and 37.6% of the females were physically inactive (p < 0.05); however, male adolescents (48.2%) were significantly more likely than female adolescents (52.1 %) to report sufficient moderate physical activity (p < 0.05). The dietary fiber intake was slightly below the recommended intake of 10 g per 1000 kcal. Compared to the AHA averages, these adolescents had significantly higher intake of total fat, saturated fat, sodium and dietary cholesterol and lower intake of polyunsaturated fat, monounsaturated fat and dietary fiber. The Turkish adolescents also had higher amounts of energy from fat. The mean percentage of energy from fat was 34.2 ± 6% TE for males and 35.2 ± 6.8 % TE for females; saturated fat was 11.8 ± 6.8 % TE for males and 12.1 ± 8.9 for females. The intake of fat and saturated fat was higher than the AHA recommendations. The polyunsaturated to saturated fat ratio was 0.4 ± 0.2 and reflected a high saturated fat (12.0 ± 7.7% TE) and low polyunsaturated fat (5.5 ± 3.9 % TE) diet. In addition, the percentage of adolescents who did not meet 66% of RDA for vitamin E, B6, and folates and the recommendation for RDA dietary fiber is presented. Approximately, 80% of adolescents failed to meet the dietary recommendation of the AHA for polyunsaturated fatty acids, and about 26.7% reported a cholesterol intake higher than 100 mg/1000 kcal. Conclusion It can be said that fiber, total fat, saturated fatty acid, cholesterol and sodium intake of Turkish adolescents are found to be high; however, their vitamin E, vitamin B6 and folate intake are found to be low compared to AHA recommendations. Turkish adolescents fruit and vegetable intake are also found to be low.     

Receiver-operating characteristic analyses of body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio for obesity: Screening in young adults in central south of China

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Recent data suggest that current obesity diagnostic criterion based on body mass index (BMI) above 30 in Caucasians may not be appropriate for Asian populations. Our aim was to identify the usefulness of BMI, waist circumference (WC) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) in screening for obesity in an Asian population. METHODS: A cross-sectional sample of 1109 males and 879 females aged 20-45-yr were recruited. Height, weight, WC, hip circumference and percentage body fat (PBF) were measured in all subjects. Then receiver-operating characteristic analyses were used to evaluate the performances of the three anthropometric indices. RESULTS: BMI, WC and WHR showed strong positive correlation with PBF (r=0.47-0.75) in both males and females within both age groups. True-positive rates ranged from 82.4% to 94.1% and 68.8% to 86.3% in males and females, respectively. True-negative rates ranged from 64.1% to 84.7% and from 56.9% to 79.0%, respectively. The areas under the curves (AUCs) for WC and BMI were high (0.76-0.92) in both sexes and divided age groups (20-30-yr and 31-45-yr), and those for WHR were a little lower (0.74-0.88). CONCLUSIONS: BMI and WC are two important predictors for obesity in Chinese, and WHR is an alternative.     

Changes in macronutrient intake among HIV-infected children between 1995 and 2004

BACKGROUND: Nutritional concerns in HIV-infected children have evolved, from wasting to obesity and insulin resistance. However, little is known about the diet of these children during this evolution. OBJECTIVE: We analyzed dietary macronutrient intake in HIV-infected children over nearly 10 y. DESIGN: HIV-infected children underwent periodic longitudinal nutritional assessments between 1995 and 2004. Sex-specific initial and final means or proportions and time trends in macronutrient intakes were estimated with regression analyses. RESULTS: Three hundred thirty nutritional records from 49 males and 411 from 67 females were analyzed. Caloric intake exceeded the estimated energy requirement (EER) for ideal body weight in 1995 by 62% for males and 39% for females and decreased by 3% of the EER per year in males (P = 0.02) and by 2% in females (P = 0.004). In 2004, caloric intake still remained >19% above the EER in both groups. Protein intake was nearly 400% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for ideal body weight in 1995 among both males and females and decreased by 13% of the RDA per year for males (P = 0.001) and by 21% per year for females (P < 0.001). However, daily protein intake still exceeded the RDA by >60% in both groups in 2004. Females consumed more energy from carbohydrates (P = 0.05) and sugar (P = 0.10) and less from monounsaturated (P = 0.04), polyunsaturated (P = 0.05), saturated (P = 0.03), and total (P = 0.10) fat in 2004 than in 1995. CONCLUSION: Excessive caloric intake and a shift in dietary composition toward carbohydrates in females suggest that continued monitoring of diet in HIV-infected children is important to avoid increased nutritional risk.     

Food consumption and nutrient intake in a sample of Italian secondary school students: results from the INRAN-RM-2001 food survey

The present study was designed to estimate the average food and nutrient intake in a sample of Italian students living in the District of Rome. In the school year 1999-2000 all students belonging to the first, second or third year of nine randomly selected secondary public schools were contacted for filling in a food frequency questionnaire (3982 subjects). The next year, 233 of them (125 males and 108 females), randomly extracted, participated in a detailed food survey. Food intake was assessed on the basis of 12 (four consecutive days in three different periods) 24-h dietary records. The average daily intakes of fruit (107 +/- 100 g/day), vegetables (186 +/- 74 g/day) and legumes (16 +/- 29 g/day) were lower than recommended. The percentage of energy intake from fat (39%) and that from saturated fats (12%) were high. On the other hand, the percentage of energy intake from carbohydrates was low (45%) even if that from sugar (14%) was rather high. The students' diet was characterized by low intakes of fibre (16 +/- 6 g/day) and calcium (710 +/- 247 mg/day) in both males and females. Iron intakes were lower than 12 mg/day in a very high percentage of females (80%), suggesting that iron deficiency may be present in this population group. Results indicate that the diet of these students is both unbalanced in terms of macronutrients and deficient for some micronutrients, suggesting the need for intervention.     

Dietary Pattern among Schoolchildren with Normal Nutritional Status in Navarre,Spain

A nutrition survey was carried out (food intake registration of three consecutive school days) in a randomly selected group of 353 schoolchildren (188 males and 165 females) with normal nutritional status. The average age of the surveyed students was 10.5 years (CI 95%: 10.3–11.7). There were no significant differences between both sexes in mean values for calorie intake (males: 2072.7 ± 261.7 and females: 2060.9 ± 250.6) and intake of macronutrients, minerals and vitamins. Cereals (34%), dairy products (19%) and meats (17%) were responsible for approximately 70% of total calorie intake. Protein accounted for 20.3% of energy intake, carbohydrates for 48.8%, total fat for 30.9%, and saturated fat for 12.6%. Cholesterol intake was excessive and over two-thirds of protein intake was from animal sources. The mean intakes of calcium, iodine and Vitamins A, D and E were below recommended levels. The dietary patterns of the schoolchildren with normal nutritional status differed from the Mediterranean diet. Intakes of meat were too high and dairy products and cereals consumption was relatively limited; while that of vegetables; legumes; fruits and fish were insufficient; leading to excessive protein and fat intake from animal sources and insufficient mineral (calcium and iodine) and Vitamins A; D and E intake.     

Race-, gender- and age-specific differences in dietary micronutrient intakes of US children

Race-, gender- and age-specific differences in dietary micronutrient intakes of 1- to 10-year-old US children were evaluated. Three-day, dietary intakes from the US Department of Agriculture's Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals were evaluated. Data from 1895 children (967 males, 928 females; 1,540 Whites, 355 Blacks) who resided in the 48 conterminous states were analyzed. Micronutrient intakes, intakes as percent of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and percent of children who consumed < or =67% of the RDA were computed. Black males compared with White males, Black females compared with White females and White females compared with White males had significantly lower dietary intakes for several micronutrients. More Black males than White males had intakes < or =67% of the RDA for vitamin E, calcium and zinc. Blacks and female children were at a greater risk for vitamin A, vitamin E, calcium, iron and zinc deficiency.     

Gender differences in food and energy intake among adult villagers in northwestern Bangladesh: a food frequency questionnaire survey

This study aimed to elucidate gender differences in dietary intake of rural Bangladeshi adults. A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) survey using 15 food/dish items, together with anthropometric measurements, was conducted for 230 adults and adolescents (95 males and 135 females). To estimate the portion sizes of these foods/dishes, the samples consumed by 25 subjects were weighed. The FFQ revealed that rice was eaten two to three times (or more) per day by 98% of the subjects, providing nearly 60% of energy for both sexes. Puri (fried bread), meats, eggs, pulses, milk, fresh vegetables, fruits, tea with milk and sugar, and soft drinks were consumed more frequently by males. Males' larger portion sizes of rice, fish dish, potato dish, and vegetable dish resulted in larger daily energy intake per body weight in males (235 +/- 41 kJ/kg) than in females (161 +/- 28 kJ/kg). Despite males' larger energy intake, the proportion of chronically energy deficient persons (<18.5 kg/m2 in body mass index) was similar between males (35.8%) and females (37.8%), attributing to males' larger energy expenditure. Females' less-frequent consumption of nutritious foods and smaller energy intake were considered vulnerable to micronutrient deficiency.     

Changes in the diets of university students over a six-year period (1986–1991)

First year students from six consecutive years (1986–1991) completed one week weighed dietary surveys. From these data, dietary intakes of a variety of nutrients were determined. Data were compared with literature values for other young adults; with recommended daily amounts (RDA) in place at the time, and where appropriate with more recent dietary reference values (DRV).
Results show that nutrient intakes, including alcohol intakes, of students were generally similar to those of other young adults, and close to RDAs. Female students tended to eat a smaller proportion of their energy as fat, and their total energy intake showed a consistent decrease across the years studied. This could reflect the ever increasing emphasis on a slim female shape, and is notable as these females did not consider themselves to be on weight-reducing diets. Intakes of minor nutrients showed few differences compared with other young adults, although a large variation in intakes was noted. On average, most vitamin intakes were above the RDA, but vitamin A intake amongst females was declining, and in latter years was below the RDA. Female intakes of riboflavin also tended to be low. Contrary to suggestions of low calcium intakes amongst adolescents, students were consuming more than the RDA, and more calcium than other young adults. A large proportion of the females, in all years, were not reaching the RDA for iron, suggesting the possibility of iron-deficiency anaemia if intakes remain low.     

Nutrient adequacy in Spanish children and adolescents

The nutritional intakes of the Spanish child and adolescent population are presented, as well as the population at risk of inadequate nutrient status. A random sample of 3534 people aged 2-24 years were interviewed between 1998 and 2000. Interviews included two 24 h recalls and a general questionnaire and anthropometric evaluations for the entire sample. After excluding under-reporters (18.7 %), the final sample was 2855 individuals (1348 males and 1507 females). The average intake of energy was 9543 kJ in males and 7804 kJ in females, with important variations seen by age group. Energy intake increased with age in both sexes until 14-17 years, which also applied to almost all of the nutrients studied, with the exception of vitamin C. A decreasing trend in the percentage of energy from carbohydrates was seen in both sexes. At the low socioeconomic level, it was observed that all nutrient intakes were less favourable when compared with higher socioeconomic levels. Nutrients with associated intakes below one-third of the Spanish recommended nutrient intake (RNI) included vitamin D (42 % of the sample) and folate (10 % of females), and the percentages falling below two-thirds of the RNI corresponded to: vitamin D (97 %), vitamin A (60 %), vitamin E (54 %), folate (58 % of females), Fe (23 % of females), vitamin C (8 %), Mg (4.5 %), Ca (5 % of females) and vitamin B6 (5 % of females). Adolescents aged between 14 and 17 years was the group with the highest nutritional risk, especially among girls. Nutritional adequacy in Spanish children was, in general, adequate, although it is necessary to analyse the implications of high inadequate intakes of vitamins D, E and A, which means that the current recommended intakes should be reconsidered. It should be noted that folate levels should be doubled in the near future.     

Gender differences in food and energy intake among adult villagers in northwestern Bangladesh: a food frequency questionnaire survey

This study aimed to elucidate gender differences in dietary intake of rural Bangladeshi adults. A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) survey using 15 food/dish items, together with anthropometric measurements, was conducted for 230 adults and adolescents (95 males and 135 females). To estimate the portion sizes of these foods/dishes, the samples consumed by 25 subjects were weighed. The FFQ revealed that rice was eaten two to three times (or more) per day by 98% of the subjects, providing nearly 60% of energy for both sexes. Puri (fried bread), meats, eggs, pulses, milk, fresh vegetables, fruits, tea with milk and sugar, and soft drinks were consumed more frequently by males. Males’ larger portion sizes of rice, fish dish, potato dish, and vegetable dish resulted in larger daily energy intake per body weight in males (235±41 kJ/kg) than in females (161±28 kJ/kg). Despite males’ larger energy intake, the proportion of chronically energy deficient persons (<18.5 kg/m² in body mass index) was similar between males (35.8%) and females (37.8%), attributing to males’ larger energy expenditure. Females’ less-frequent consumption of nutritious foods and smaller energy intake were considered vulnerable to micronutrient deficiency.