不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚术前用药与老年患者术后谵妄发生率的关系

目的观察术前应用不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚与老年患者术后谵妄发生率的关系。方法随机选取289例行全身麻醉的老年手术患者,随机分为三组,P1组（n=98）：术前30min肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01mg/kg;P2组（n=95）：术前30min肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.02mg/kg（最大量不超过1mg）;C组（n=96）：术前30min肌注阿托品0.01mg/kg（最大量不超过1mg）。依据CAM-CR评估各组老年患者术后24～72h内的谵妄程度。结果 P2组患者术后谵妄发生率明显高于P1和C组（P〈0.05）。结论术前肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01mg/kg不增加老年患者术后谵妄的发生率,而肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.02mg/kg可增加老年患者术后谵妄的发生率。     

不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年病人术后认知功能的影响

目的 探讨不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年病人术后认知功能的影响.方法 拟在全麻下行腹部手术的老年病人93例,年龄≥65岁,体重55～ 71 kg,性别不限,ASA分级Ⅰ级或Ⅱ级,简易智力量表评分(MMSE评分)＞27分,采用随机数字表法,将病人随机分为3组(n=31)∶盐酸戊乙奎醚0.010 mg/kg组(A组)、盐酸戊乙奎醚0.015 mg/kg组(B组)和阿托品0.010 mg/kg组(C组).麻醉前30min,A组肌肉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚0.010 mg/kg,B组肌肉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚0.015 mg/kg,C组肌肉注射阿托品0.010 mg/kg.于术后72 h内行MMSE评分,≤27分为发生认知功能障碍(24～ 27分为轻度;19 ～ 23分为中度;0～18分为重度).记录术后72 h内术后认知功能障碍的发生情况和程度.结果 与A组比较,B组术后各时点认知功能降低,术后认知功能障碍发生率升高(P＜0.05),A组和C组差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);与B组比较,C组术后各时点认知功能增强,术后认知功能障碍发生率降低(P＜0.05).结论 盐酸戊乙奎醚可抑制老年病人术后认知功能,且与剂量有关.     

术前应用盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者术后早期认知功能的影响

目的观察麻醉前应用盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者全麻下肝脏手术后早期认知功能障碍发生率的影响。方法选择全麻下行择期肝脏手术老年患者80例，随机分为戊乙奎醚组（42例）和对照组（38例）。戊乙奎醚组在麻醉诱导前10min静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚0．5mg，对照组则给予等容积生理盐水，麻醉诱导后持续微泵注射瑞芬太尼及吸入七氟烷、问断注射顺苯璜酸阿曲库铵维持麻醉。分别在术前及术后48h进行神经心理学评估，采用简易智力量表测试。气管导管拔除后10min以ICU精神错乱评估法（CAM-ICU）行全麻苏醒期谵妄评估。结果两组患者气管导管拔管时间术前MMSE评分差异无统计学意义；术后48h MMSE评分≤23分的患者分别有6例（14．3％）和5例（13．2％），两组术后认知功能障碍发生率差异无统计学意义；戊乙奎醚组全麻苏醒期谵妄发生率为21．4％，对照组为18.4％，差异无统计学意义。结论术前静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者术后早期认知功能障碍发生率无显著影响。     

术前应用盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者术后早期认知功能的影响

目的 观察术前应用盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年全麻患者术后早期认知功能障碍(POCD)的影响.方法 择期全麻下行非心脏手术老年患者(≥65岁)120例,随机均分成二组,麻醉前30min分别肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.5mg(A组)、阿托品0.5 mg(B组)或东茛菪碱0.3 mg(C组),于术前24 h及术后24、48、72 h由同一测试者采用简易智力状态检查法(MMSE)评估患者认知功能.结果 手术后3 d内A、B和C组POCD发生率分别为25%、27.5%和30%,三组间差异无统计学意义.术后24、48和72 h MMSE评分A组略高于B组和C组.结论 术前肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.5 mg不增加老年非心脏手术患者POCD发生率.     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对梗阻性黄疸患者血浆sTM和vWF水平的影响

目的研究盐酸戊乙奎醚对梗阻性黄疸患者全身性血管内皮细胞(VEC)急性损伤的保护作用。方法择期行上腹部手术患者90例,患者随机均分为三组,术前分别肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.02mg/kg(P组)、东莨菪碱0.3mg(S组)和生理盐水(C组)。分别于术前、手术结束、术后6、24、72h采血动态监测三组患者血浆可溶性血栓调节蛋白(sTM)和血管性假血友病因子(vWF)的变化。结果三组患者血浆sTM和vWF水平在手术结束、术后6、24h时均高于术前(P<0.01),但P组和S组低于C组(P<0.01);P组又明显低于S组(P<0.05)。结论盐酸戊乙奎醚与东莨菪碱均可减轻梗阻性黄疸导致的VEC损伤,而盐酸戊乙奎醚作用更加明显。     

不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者术后早期认知功能的影响

目的观察老年患者术前应用不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚对术后认知功能的影响。方法择期全麻下行非心脏手术老年患者120例,年龄65～78岁,ASAⅡ或Ⅲ级,按照不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚均分为:低剂量组(A组)静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.005mg/kg、中剂量组(B组)静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01mg/kg和高剂量组(C组)静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.015mg/kg。均采用全麻,麻醉诱导和维持用药相同。记录注药前、注药后10、20、30min的SBP、DBP、HR和SpO2,用VAS评分评定上述各时点患者口干程度,记录术中气道分泌物,术前及术后24、48、72h采用简易智力状态检查法(MMSE)评估患者认知功能。结果 C组术中气道分泌物明显少于A、B组(P<0.05);B、C组认知功能障碍(POCD)发生率明显高于A组(P<0.05)。与注药前比较,注药后20、30min三组患者口干评分明显升高(P<0.05);且C组明显高于A组(P<0.05)。术后24、48hB、C组MMSE评分明显低于术前和A组(P<0.05)。术后72h内POCD发生率A组(10%)明显低于B组(25%)和C组(30%)(P<0.05)。结论老年患者术前静注不同剂量盐酸戊乙奎醚明显抑制气道腺体分泌作用,且对心率无影响,但可导致剂量相关的POCD,采用低剂量相对安全。     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对非停跳冠状动脉搭桥术后患者肺部并发症发生的预防效果

目的 评价术前静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚对非停跳冠状动脉搭桥术后患者肺部并发症(PPC)发生的预防效果.方法 非停跳冠状动脉搭桥术患者140例,性别不限,年龄35 ～ 80岁,体重55 ～ 80 kg,ASA分级Ⅱ或Ⅲ级.采用随机数字表法,将其分为2组(n=70):对照组(C组)和盐酸戊乙奎醚组(P组).于气管插管后即刻P组缓慢静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚20 μg/kg(5 ml),C组以等容量生理盐水替代.记录术后72 h内患者PPC的发生情况.结果 C组和P组PPC发生率分别为33％和16％.与C组比较,P组PPC发生率降低(P＜0.05).结论 术前静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚20 μg/kg可预防非停跳冠状动脉搭桥术患者PPC的发生.     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对腹腔镜下胃癌根治术围术期胃动素和胃泌素的影响

目的观察盐酸戊乙奎醚对腹腔镜下胃癌根治术患者围术期胃动素(MTL)、胃泌素(GAS)变化的影响。方法选择行腹腔镜下胃癌根治术的胃癌患者50例,按双盲法随机均分为两组:盐酸戊乙奎醚组(P组),术前30min肌注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01mg/kg,阿托品组(A组),术前30min肌注阿托品0.01mg/kg。分别于术前12h(T0)、手术开始(T1)、术毕(T2)、术后24h(T3)、48h(T4)采集4ml静脉血,应用放射免疫分析法测定血浆MTL、血清GAS含量。观察围术期循环系统的变化及肛门首次排气时间。结果 T2～T4时两组MTL含量明显低于T0时,且P组MTL、GAS明显高于A组(P<0.05)。术后首次排气时间P组(85±10)h明显早于A组(93±13)h(P<0.05)。结论麻醉前应用盐酸戊乙奎醚较应用阿托品围术期MTL、GAS含量有所增加,更有助于胃肠功能的恢复。     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者非心脏手术后早期认知功能的影响

目的 观察术前应用盐酸戊乙奎醚0.02 mg/kg对老年患者全麻下非心脏手术后早期认知功能的影响.方法 选择全麻下行择期非心脏手术且年龄＞65岁的老年患者60例,随机分为盐酸戊乙奎醚组和对照组.盐酸戊乙奎醚组在麻醉诱导前10 min静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚0.02mg/kg;对照组则给等容积生理盐水.麻醉诱导后持续微量泵注射丙泊酚及瑞芬太尼、间断注射阿曲库铵维持麻醉.分别在麻醉前和麻醉后3d采用简易智力量表进行神经心理学评估.结果 因各种原因,仅有41例患者完成全部测试,其中盐酸戊乙奎醚组20例,对照组21例.盐酸戊乙奎醚组术后认知功能障碍( POCD)发生率为35.0％,对照组为38.1％,两组间差异无统计学意义.结论 术前静脉注射0.02 mg/kg盐酸戊乙奎醚对老年患者非心脏手术POCD发生率无显著影响.     

氯诺昔康/盐酸戊乙奎醚用于治疗输尿管结石引起急腹痛的观察

目的比较氯诺昔康联合盐酸戊乙奎醚(penehyclidine hydrochloride)用于输尿管结石所引起的急腹痛的疗效和病理生理影响。方法60例输尿管结石急腹痛患者随机均分成三组:氯诺昔康组(L组)、盐酸戊乙奎醚组(P组)、氯诺昔康/盐酸戊乙奎醚组(L/P组)。L组氯诺昔康8mg肌注;P组盐酸戊乙奎醚1mg肌注;L/P组氯诺昔康8mg/盐酸戊乙奎醚1mg肌注。记录患者使用镇痛药后疼痛缓解时间及首次再痛发生时间;行注射前后疼痛评分;观察不良反应的发生率。用药后3周行腹部平片及尿常规复查,观察结石下行和输尿管损伤情况。结果三组患者用药后疼痛均能缓解,L/P组镇痛效果最佳;L/P组疼痛缓解时间明显短于其他两组,首次再痛发生时间明显长于其他两组,有明显的节镇痛药效应。3周后腹部平片或超声检查显示L/P组患者的结石下行速度快于其他两组,血尿改善也比其他两组满意。结论对于输尿管结石性急腹痛,氯诺昔康和盐酸戊乙奎醚的联合使用比两者单独使用显示出更加迅速而又持久的镇痛作用,有效的解痉镇痛治疗有利于输尿管结石的下行,并可减少结石对输尿管壁的损伤。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.