Evaluation of neurotoxicity of alzheimer's amyloid beta protein (beta42) in cultured hippocampal cells and its prevention by propentofylline

Neurotoxicity of beta42 (20 microM) in cultured rat hippocampal neurons was evaluated by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release methods as quantitative assays of cell death, and both methods indicated that propentofylline (PPF) had the ability to protect the neurons against the toxicity, although these two assay methods revealed different mechanisms for the toxic effect of beta42. Promotion of the active exocytotic system of the cells was suggested after treatment with beta42 in the MTT assay and in determination of 9-aminoacridine (AA) excretion from the preloaded cells after 24-h treatment with beta42. The promotion of AA exocytosis was blocked by the addition of PPF (20 microg/ml). The preventive effect of PPF on the neurotoxicity of beta42 has been proposed to be caused by elevation of the intracellular level of cAMP as a result of depression of the hydrolytic activity of cells.     

Prevention of 6-hydroxydopamine neurotoxicity.

1-Phenyl-3-(2-thiazolyl)-2-thiourea (PTTU) prevented the neurotoxic actions of 6-hydroxydopamine on adrenergic nerves in the mouse atrium and iris. This is the first reported 6-hydroxydopamine antagonist that does not act by blocking uptake of catecholamines into nerve terminals. PTTU also prevented the diabetogenic action of alloxan.     

Benzofuran-based hybrid compounds for the inhibition of cholinesterase activity, beta amyloid aggregation, and abeta neurotoxicity

The complex etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) prompts scientists to develop multitarget strategies to combat causes and symptoms. We therefore designed, synthesized, and tested new hybrid molecules linking a benzofuran ring to a N-methyl- N-benzylamine through a heptyloxy chain, affording a series of potential multifunctional drugs for AD. The cholinesterase inhibitory activity was extended to the inhibition of Abeta fibril formation for 1, 3, and 5. Compound 3 showed an additional neuroprotective effect.     

雷洛昔芬可减弱β-淀粉样蛋白对原代海马神经元的毒性作用

目的研究雌激素受体调节剂雷洛昔芬对原代海马神经元的保护作用。方法将原代培养的海马神经元分为五组:对照(A)组;β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)(B)组;Aβ+17β雌二醇(C)组;Aβ+苯甲酸雌二醇(D)组;Aβ+雷洛昔芬(E)组。用MTT方法观测各组海马神经元活力;通过AnnexinV-FITC双染流式细胞术检测各组海马神经元的凋亡。结果 B组海马神经元活力(72.5±10.7)%,显著低于A组的100%(P<0.01);B组凋亡率(31.5±1.9)%,明显高于与A组的(9.0±0.6)%(P<0.01)。C、D、E组海马神经元活力均高于与B组(P<0.05或P<0.01),而凋亡率均降低(P<0.05),但C、D、E三组之间差异无统计学意义。结论雷洛昔芬可减弱Aβ对原代海马神经元的毒性作用;雷洛昔芬对原代海马神经元的保护作用与雌激素相似。     

Protection against amyloid beta cytotoxicity by sulforaphane: Role of the proteasome

The 26S proteasome plays a major role in degradation of abnormal proteins within the cell. The indirect antioxidant including sulforaphane (SFN) protects cells from oxidative damage by increasing the expression of Nrf2-target genes. It has been observed that the expression of multiple subunits of the proteasome was up-regulated by indirect antioxidants through the Nrf2 pathway. In the current study, the role of SFN in amyloid β_1–42 (Aβ_1–42)-induced cytotoxicity has been investigated in murine neuroblastoma cells. Treatment with SFN protected cells from Aβ_1–42-mediated cell death in Neuro2A and N1E 115 cells. Inhibition of proteasome activities by MG132 could abolish the protective effect of SFN against Aβ_1–42. Neuro2A cells, which were stably overexpressing the catalytic subunit of the proteasome PSMB5, showed an elevated resistance toward Aβ_1–42 toxicity compared to control cells. Furthermore, the in vitro assay demonstrated that the Aβ_1–42 peptide is degraded by the proteasome fraction. These results suggest that proteasome-inducing indirect antioxidants may facilitate the removal of the Aβ_1–42 peptide and lead to the amelioration of abnormal protein-associated etiologies.     

Peptide inhibitors of beta amyloid aggregation

Amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer s disease (AD), particularly as oligomers or polymers that are correlated with Abeta cellular toxicity. Inhibition of the formation of toxic forms of Abeta has therefore emerged as one approach to the treatment of AD. This article reviews efforts to adapt the structure of Abeta to the design and testing of peptide-based inhibitors of Abeta polymerization of interest as potential AD therapeutics.     

Protective effects of melatonin on cortico-hippocampal neurotoxicity induced by amyloid beta-peptide 25-35

AIM: To study the effects of melatonin on primary rat cortico-hippocampal neurotoxicity induced by amyloid beta-peptide 25-35. METHODS: The neuronal morphology was observed by phase-contrast microscopy. The neurotoxicity was quantitatively estimated by measuring lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) released into the culture medium from the damaged neurons. The neuronal metabolic state was quantified by the reduction of 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT). RESULTS: Treatment of primary rat cortico-hippocampal neurons with amyloid beta-peptide 25-35 (20 micromol/L) for 24 h caused a significant decrease in neurocyte viability (P < 0.01, compared with control). Melatonin (1 or 10 micromol/L) reduced the neurotoxicity induced by amyloid beta-peptide 25-35. CONCLUSION: Amyloid beta-peptide 25-35 could exert direct cytotoxicity on rat cortico-hippocampal neurocytes and melatonin concentration-dependently rescued cultured neurons from exposure to amyloid beta-peptide 25-35 induced injury.     

原花青素对 Aβ25-35诱导的小鼠学习记忆损伤的影响

目的：观察原花青素对淀粉样β蛋白25‐35（Aβ25‐35）诱导的小鼠学习记忆损伤的影响。方法将30只雄性2月龄C57bl／6小鼠随机均分为五组：E组为空白对照;其余四组采用双侧侧脑室注射Aβ25‐35制备的小鼠学习记忆损伤模型后,D组为模型对照,A、B和C组分别用原花青素50、100和150 mg／kg灌胃,连续30 d。D组和E组采用灭菌双蒸水灌胃。采用Y迷宫测试小鼠短期学习记忆能力;HE染色观察小鼠海马CA1区神经元损伤情况;化学比色法测定小鼠血清中丙二醛（MDA）、羟自由基（OH －）、谷胱甘肽（GSH）、总抗氧化能力（T‐AOC）和超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）表达水平;Western blot测定硝基络氨酸（NTS）、过氧化物还原酶1（Prdx‐1）在小鼠海马组织中的表达。结果与D组比较,A、B和C组小鼠短期学习记忆能力较好,CA1区深染神经细胞比例呈剂量依赖性下降,血清GSH、T‐AOC和SOD含量增高,且海马组织中NTS表达水平降低,Prdx‐1表达水平升高（ P＜0．01或P＜0．05）。结论原花青素能改善Aβ25‐35诱导的小鼠氧化应激水平,从而减轻小鼠海马神经退行性病变和小鼠学习记忆损伤。     

褪黑激素对β—淀粉样多肽25—35片段所致皮层海马神经细胞毒性损伤的防护作用

目的:观察褪黑激素对β-淀粉样多肽25-35片段(Nβ_(25-35)所致神经细胞毒性作用的影响.方法:用相衬倒置显微镜观察原代培养的神经细胞的形态;用噻唑兰(MTT)法、乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)测定及台盼兰染色观察神经细胞的存活情况.结果:Aβ_(25-35)(20μmol/L)可引起培养的神经细胞数量减少,部分突起消失;台盼兰着色细胞数增加;神经细胞增殖能力降低;培养上清液中LDH释放量增加;褪黑激素(Ⅰ,10μmol/L)可抑制Aβ_(25-35)诱导的上述毒性损伤.结论:Aβ_(25-35)对原代培养的皮质-海马神经细胞有直接的细胞毒作用,褪黑激素对Aβ_(25-35)所致神经细胞毒性损伤具有剂量依赖性的防护作用.     

Prevention of inflammation-mediated neurotoxicity by Rg3 and its role in microglial activation

Considering the importance of inflammation and apoptosis in neurodegenerative conditions, the potential suppressive effects of the Rg3, a by-product obtained during the steaming of red ginseng, may indicate that Rg3 could provide a beneficial therapeutic approach to treating or preventing neurodegenerative disease. We investigated the effect of Rg3 on Abeta42-mediated microglial activation and inflammation-mediated neurotoxicity in murine BV-2 microglial and Neuro-2a neuroblastoma cells, respectively. Rg3 effectively reduced inflammatory cytokine expression in Abeta42-treated BV-2, and inhibited the binding of NF-kappaB p65 to its DNA consensus sequences, and significantly reduced the expression of TNF-alpha in activated microglia. Pretreatment with Rg3 increased the survival rate of Neuro-2a exposed to TNF-alpha. These observations suggest that Rg3 reduced neurotoxicity by inhibiting chronic inflammation through the suppression of activated microglia. In addition, the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in BV-2 stimulated by Abeta42 was decreased but not eliminated by Rg3 when binding to the macrophage scavenger receptor type A (MSRA) was blocked with fucoidan. This implies that the inflammatory response may not be exclusively triggered via MSRA. More interestingly, iNOS was almost completely inhibited in the presence of Rg3 when MSRA binding was blocked with fucoidan. Moreover, Rg3 increased the expression of MSRA in BV-2 transfected with siRNA targeting MSRA mRNA, and this increased MSRA expression may play a role in the phagocytosis of Abeta42 peptides. Our results indicate that inhibition of the inflammatory repertoire of microglia, neuroprotection, and increased MSRA expression induced by Rg3 may at least partly explain its therapeutic effects in chronic neurodegenerative diseases.     

Rationalizing a pharmacological intervention on the amyloid precursor protein metabolism.

The treatment of Alzheimer's disease remains a major challenge because of our incomplete understanding of the triggering events that lead to the selective neurodegeneration characteristic of Alzheimer's brains. The rational design of a pharmacological intervention is therefore a great theoretical challenge. One approach involves the study of the pharmacological modulation of the amyloid precursor protein metabolism, in which the goal is to reduce the formation of beta-amyloid in the hope of reducing the formation of a potentially neurotoxic peptide. Such an approach has led to the identification of a complex intracellular mechanism that can be regulated by neurotransmitters and other ligands.     

Prevention by a Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE 761) of the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of MPTP

In mice implanted subcutaneously with osmotic minipumps releasing the neurotoxic agent N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) for 7 days (105 micrograms h-1/mouse) (approximately 100 mg kg-1 day-1) a significant reduction (approximately 25%) in the striatal dopaminergic nerve endings was observed. This neurotoxic effect was prevented by the semi-chronic ingestion of a Ginkgo biloba extract for 17 days (GBE 761, approximately 100 mg kg-1 day-1). The high concentrations (approximately 1 g L-1) at which GBE 761 in-vitro either prevented the uptake of [3H]dopamine by synaptosomes prepared from striatum, or prevented the specific binding of the pure dopamine uptake inhibitor [3H]GBR 12783 to membranes prepared from striatum suggests that the prevention of the MPTP neurotoxicity does not depend on an inhibition of the MPTP uptake by dopamine neurons. This is also suggested by the lack of prevention of the in-vitro striatal binding of [3H]GBR 12783 administered i.v. at a tracer dose, in mice pretreated for 8 days with GBE 761 (100 mg kg-1 p.o.) and receiving a supplementary gastric administration of GBE 761 (100 mg kg-1) 1 h before testing. Similar treatment with GBE 761 did not modify the toxicity for dopamine neurons of 6-hydroxydopamine (20 micrograms) directly injected into the striatum of rats.     

Acidic oligosaccharide sugar chain, a marine-derived acidic oligosaccharide, inhibits the cytotoxicity and aggregation of amyloid beta protein

In this paper, we investigated interactions of the acidic oligosaccharide sugar chain (AOSC), derived from brown algae Echlonia kurome OKAM, with amyloid beta protein (Abeta). We observed that AOSC inhibited the toxicity induced by Abeta in both primarily cortical cells and the SH-SY5Y cell line. We also observed that AOSC inhibited the apoptosis induced by Abeta in SH-SY5Y by reducing the elevated level of intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) and suppressing the generation of reactive oxygen species. Surface plasmon resonance analysis demonstrated that AOSC had affinity for both freshly-dissolved Abeta and 48-h incubated Abeta. Furthermore, AOSC blocked the fibril formation of Abeta, which may be responsible for its anti-cytotoxic effects. Thus, our results indicate that AOSC might be a potentially therapeutic compound for Alzheimer's disease.     

丹酚酸B体外抑制淀粉样β蛋白的纤维形成及其细胞毒作用(英文)

目的:观察丹酚酸B对淀粉样β蛋白的纤维形成及其细胞毒作用的影响。方法:将不同浓度丹酚酸B与淀粉样β蛋白(1-40)在25℃共同孵育,于不同时间取样品电镜观察纤维形成。用MTT法观察此不同时间点淀粉样β蛋白(1-40)对PC12细胞的毒性作用。另将淀粉样β蛋白(25-35)预先老化7d,用MTT法观察此老化蛋白对PC12细胞的毒性及丹酚酸B的作用。结果:丹酚酸B10—100nmol/L可以完全抑制淀粉样β蛋白(1-40)25℃放置30h的纤维形成,对淀粉样β蛋白(1-40)25℃放置48及100h的纤维形成也有明显抑制作用。MTT法显示,经与丹酚酸B共同孵育的淀粉样β蛋白(1-40)明显较未与丹酚酸B孵育的淀粉样β蛋白对PC12细胞的毒性小。丹酚酸B1μmol/L可明显抑制预先老化的淀粉样β蛋白(25-35)对PC12细胞的毒性作用。结论:丹酚酸B可抑制淀粉样β蛋白的老化及纤维形成,同时可直接抑制老化淀粉样β蛋白对PC12细胞的毒性作用。 (责任编辑 吴民淑)     

Biphasic modulation of chemerin peptide-induced calcium flux and ERK phosphorylation by amyloid beta peptide

OBJECTIVE The chemokine-like receptor 1(CMKLR1,Chem R23) is a functional receptor for chemerin,the chemerin-derived nonapeptide(C9),and the amyloid β peptide 1-42(Aβ_(42)).Because these peptides share little sequence homology,studies were conducted to investigate their pharmacological properties and regulation at CMKLR1.METHODS Cells expressing CMKLR1 were incubated with Aβ_(42) before stimulation with a strong agonist,the C9 peptide.Calcium mobilization,c AMP inhibition and MAP kinase activation were measured.Intramolecular FRET were determined using CMKLR1 constructs with an ECFP attached to the C-terminus and a Fl As H binding motif embedded in the first intracellular loop(IL1).RESULTS Binding of both Aβ_(42) and the C9 peptide induced CMKLR1 internalization,but only the Aβ_(42)-induced receptor internalization involved clathrin-coated pits.Likewise,Aβ_(42) but not C9 stimulated β-arrestin 2 translocation to plasma membranes.A robust Ca~(2+)flux was observed following C9 stimulation,whereas Aβ_(42) was ineffective even at micromolar concentrations.Despite its low potency in calcium mobilization assay,Aβ_(42) was able to alter C9-induced Ca~(2+) flux in dose-dependent manner:a potentiation effect at 100 pmol·L~(-1) of Aβ_(42) was followed by a suppression at 10 nmol·L~(-1) and further potentiation at 1 μmol·L~(-1).This unusual and biphasic modulatory effect was also seen in the C9-induced ERK phosphorylation but the dose curve was opposite to that of Ca~(2+) flux and c AMP inhibition,suggesting a reciprocal regulatory mechanism.Intramolecular FRET assay confirmed that Aβ_(42) modulates CMKLR1 rather than its downstream signaling pathways.CONCLUSION These findings suggest Aβ_(42) as an allosteric modulator that can both positively and negatively regulate the activation state of CMKLR1 in a manner that differs from existing allosteric modulatory mechanisms.     

地塞米松和淀粉样β蛋白片段25-35对PC12细胞损伤和凋亡的影响

目的探讨地塞米松(DEX)和淀粉样β蛋白片段25-35(Aβ25-35)联合作用对PC12细胞损伤和凋亡的影响。方法采用单独或联合应用DEX 0.1～10μmol.L-1和Aβ25-35 1～5μmol.L-1作用PC12细胞24 h,MTT法测定细胞活力;膜联蛋白-Ⅴ,PI双染流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率,PI单染流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡峰;逆转录-PCR检测胱天蛋白酶3 mRNA的表达水平。结果 MTT结果显示,与正常对照组相比,DEX 5和10μmol.L-1,Aβ25-35 1,5和10μmol.L-1,DEX 5+Aβ25-35 1,5和10μmol.L-1及DEX 10+Aβ25-35 5,10μmol.L-1组均可明显降低PC12细胞存活率,而DEX联合Aβ25-35能明显减少PC12细胞数(P<0.01)。流式细胞仪结果显示,DEX 5μmol.L-1和Aβ25-35 1μmol.L-1单独作用对PC12细胞凋亡率和亚二倍体凋亡峰有一定的增加作用(P<0.05),两者联合作用能明显增加PC12细胞早期和中晚期凋亡率,增加亚二倍体凋亡峰(P<0.01);RT-PCR结果显示,DEX 5μmol.L-1和Aβ25-35 1μmol.L-1单独作用对PC12细胞胱天蛋白酶3 mRNA的表达水平没有明显影响,它们联合作用能明显增加PC12细胞胱天蛋白酶3mRNA的表达水平(P<0.05)。结论 DEX和Aβ25-35联合作用能明显增加对PC12细胞的损伤,促进胱天蛋白酶3 mRNA表达,诱导PC12细胞凋亡。     

Prevention of vascular nitroglycerin tolerance by inhibition of protein kinase C.

We investigated whether in vivo inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC) can prevent the development of vascular tolerance and restore the sensitivity of isolated vessels to nitroglycerin (NTG). Tolerance was induced in male Wistar rats by a constant i.v. infusion of NTG 1 mg kg-1 h-1, a dose which did not alter blood pressure. After 72 h, the aorta was removed and the sensitivity of aortic rings to NTG tested. Chronic NTG infusion resulted in a 5.5 fold decrease in NTG-sensitivity as compared with controls (vehicle), indicating the development of vascular tolerance. The simultaneous in vivo administration of the specific PKC inhibitor N-benzoyl-staurosporine (30 mg kg-1 day-1) prevented this decrease in NTG sensitivity. These results suggest a role for PKC activation in the development of vascular NTG tolerance.     

Kavalactones protect neural cells against amyloid beta peptide-induced neurotoxicity via extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2-dependent nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 activation

One hallmark of Alzheimer's disease is the accumulation of amyloid beta-peptide (AP), which can initiate a cascade of oxidative events that may result in neuronal death. Because nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is the major regulator for a battery of genes encoding detoxifying and antioxidative enzymes via binding to the antioxidant response element (ARE), it is of great interest to find nontoxic activators of Nrf2 rendering neuronal cells more resistant to AP toxicity. Using ARE-luciferase assay and Western blot, we provide evidence that the kavalactones methysticin, kavain, and yangonin activate Nrf2 time- and dose-dependently in neural PC-12 and astroglial C6 cells and thereby up-regulate cytoprotective genes. Viability and cytotoxicity assays demonstrate that Nrf2 activation is able to protect neural cells from amyloid beta-(1-42) induced neurotoxicity. Down-regulation of Nrf2 by small hairpin RNA as well as extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 inhibition abolishes cytoprotection. We further give evidence that kavalactone-mediated Nrf2 activation is not dependent on oxidative stress production. Our results demonstrate that kavalactones attenuate amyloid beta-peptide toxicity by inducing protective gene expression mediated by Nrf2 activation in vitro. These findings indicate that the use of purified kavalactones might be considered as an adjunct therapeutic strategy to combat neural demise in Alzheimer disease and other oxidative stress-related diseases.