A critical review on serine protease: Key immune manipulator and pathology mediator

Proteolytic activity is fundamental to survival, so it is not surprising that all living organisms have proteases, especially seine protease. This enzyme in its numerous isoforms and homologues, constitutes the quintessential offence and defence factors, in the form of surface proteins, secreted molecules, gut digestive enzymes, venom in specialised glands or plant latex, among other manifestations. Occurring as trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, collagenase, thrombin, subtilisin etc., it mediates a diverse array of functions, including pathological roles as inflammatory, coagulatory to haemorrhagic. This review emphasizes that despite the superficial differences in mechanisms, most health issues, be they infectious, allergic, metabolic, or neural have a common conduit. This enzyme, in its various glycosylated forms leads to signal misinterpretations, wreaking havoc. However, organisms are endowed with serine protease inhibitors which might restrain this ubiquitous yet deleterious enzyme. Hence, serine proteases-driven pathogenesis and antagonising role of inhibitors is the focal point of this critical review.     

Association between calcium sensing receptor gene polymorphisms and chronic pancreatitis in a US population： Role of serine protease inhibitor Kazal 1type and alcohol

AIM： To test the hypothesis that calcium sensing receptor （CASR） polymorphisms are associated with chronic pancreatitis （CP）, and to determine whether serine protease inhibitor Kazal 1type （SPINK1） N34S or alcohol are necessary co-factors in its etiology.
METHODS： Initially, 115 subjects with pancreatitis and 66 controls were evaluated, of whom 57 patients and 21 controls were predetermined to carry the high-risk SPINK1 N34S polymorphism. We sequenced CASR gene exons 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7, areas containing the majority of reported polymorphisms and novel mutations. Based on the initial results, we added 223 patients and 239 controls to analyze three common nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms （SNPs） in exon 7 （A986S, R990G, and Q1011E）.
RESULTS： The CASR exon 7 R990G polyrnorphism was significantly associated with CP （OR, 2.01; 95% CI, 1.12-3.59; P = 0.015）. The association between CASR R990G and CP was stronger in subjects who reported moderate or heavy alcohol consumption （OR, 3.12; 95% CI, 1.14-9.13; P = 0.018）. There was no association between the various CASR genotypes and SPINK1 N34S in pancreatitis. None of the novel CASR polymorphisms reported from Germany and India was detected.
CONCLUSION： Our United States-based study confirmed an association of CASR and CP and for the first time demonstrated that CASR R990G is a significant risk factor for CP. We also conclude that the risk of CP with CASR R990G is increased in subjects with moderate to heavy alcohol consumption.     

Degrons in protein substrates program the speed and operating efficiency of the AAA+ Lon proteolytic machine

AAA+ proteases are ATP-fueled machines that bind protein substrates via a degradation tag, unfold the molecule if necessary, and then translocate the polypeptide into a chamber for proteolysis. Tag recognition is normally viewed as a passive reaction. By contrast, for the AAA+ Lon protease, we show that degron tags are also regulatory elements that determine protease activity levels. Indeed, different tags fused to the same protein change degradation speeds and energetic efficiencies by 10-fold or more. Degron binding to multiple sites in the Lon hexamer appears to differentially stabilize specific enzyme conformations, including one with high protease and low ATPase activity, and results in positively cooperative degradation. These allosteric mechanisms allow Lon to operate in either a fast or slow proteolysis mode, according to specific physiological needs, and may help maximize degradation of misfolded proteins following stress-induced denaturation.     

成纤维细胞激活蛋白载体的构建及表达

目的建立成纤维细胞激活蛋白(FAP)表达系统,以获得完整蛋白。方法采用RT-PCR方法,自人新鲜胃癌组织中扩增FAP-cDNA,同时将FAP-cDNA克隆到pMD18-T中,表达正确后,再定向插入真核表达载体pQE30中,转化大肠埃希菌JM109,经异丙基-B-D-硫代半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导表达。结果测定FAP-cDNA序列与GeneBank(基因库)中的FAP序列相同;构建出重组表达载体pQE30-FAP;转化大肠埃希菌JM109,并获得完整蛋白,经验证为诱导后的表达蛋白。结论成功构建pQE30-FAP表达载体,Western-Blotting验证为完整蛋白,为进一步获得抗FAP抗体奠定了基础。     

广州管圆线虫ASP基因的克隆及原核表达

目的对广州管圆线虫ASP基因的完整开放读码框进行克隆、表达及重组蛋白的免疫性分析。方法以广州管圆线虫幼虫cDNA文库中含有ASP基因的质粒为模板,扩增目的基因,进一步将其克隆到原核表达质粒pET-30a(+)中,重组质粒转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),经异丙基硫代-β-D-半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导表达,Ni-IDA亲和层析纯化表达产物。免疫印迹(Western blotting)分析重组蛋白的免疫性。结果广州管圆线虫ASP基因的编码区含有366个碱基,编码121个氨基酸,相对分子量(Mt)为13398.26Da。重组质粒pET-30a(+)-ASP构建成功,IPTG诱导获得可溶性表达的重组蛋白,经亲和层析获得的纯化蛋白可被广州管圆线虫病人血清识别。结论广州管圆线虫ASP基因可在原核表达系统中获得具有免疫性的高效表达。     

Hydrocarbon double-stapling remedies the proteolytic instability of a lengthy peptide therapeutic

The pharmacologic utility of lengthy peptides can be hindered by loss of bioactive structure and rapid proteolysis, which limits bioavailability. For example, enfuvirtide (Fuzeon, T20, DP178), a 36-amino acid peptide that inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection by effectively targeting the viral fusion apparatus, has been relegated to a salvage treatment option mostly due to poor in vivo stability and lack of oral bioavailability. To overcome the proteolytic shortcomings of long peptides as therapeutics, we examined the biophysical, biological, and pharmacologic impact of inserting all-hydrocarbon staples into an HIV-1 fusion inhibitor. We find that peptide double-stapling confers striking protease resistance that translates into markedly improved pharmacokinetic properties, including oral absorption. We determined that the hydrocarbon staples create a proteolytic shield by combining reinforcement of overall α-helical structure, which slows the kinetics of proteolysis, with complete blockade of peptide cleavage at constrained sites in the immediate vicinity of the staple. Importantly, double-stapling also optimizes the antiviral activity of HIV-1 fusion peptides and the antiproteolytic feature extends to other therapeutic peptide templates, such as the diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta). Thus, hydrocarbon double-stapling may unlock the therapeutic potential of natural bioactive polypeptides by transforming them into structurally fortified agents with enhanced bioavailability.     

Molecular characterization of proteolytic cleavage sites of the Pseudomonas syringae effector AvrRpt2

During infection of Arabidopsis thaliana, the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato delivers the effector protein AvrRpt2 into the plant cell cytosol. Within the plant cell, AvrRpt2 undergoes N-terminal processing and causes elimination of Arabidopsis RIN4. Previous work established that AvrRpt2 is a putative cysteine protease, and AvrRpt2 processing and RIN4 elimination require an intact predicted catalytic triad in that AvrRpt2. In this work, proteolytic events that depend on AvrRpt2 activity were characterized. The amino acid sequence surrounding the processing site of AvrRpt2 and two related sequences from RIN4 triggered Avr-Rpt2-dependent proteolytic cleavage of a synthetic substrate, demonstrating that these sequences are cleavage recognition sites for AvrRpt2 activity. Processing-deficient AvrRpt2 mutants were identified and shown to retain their ability to eliminate wild-type RIN4. Single amino acid substitutions were made in each of the two RIN4 cleavage sites, and mutation of both sites resulted in cleavage-resistant RIN4. Growth of Pseudomonas expressing AvrRpt2 was significantly higher than catalytically inactive mutants on Arabidopsis rin4/rps2 mutant plants, suggesting there are additional protein targets of AvrRpt2 that account for the virulence activity of this effector. Bioinformatics analysis identified putative Arabidopsis proteins containing sequences similar to the proteolytic cleavage sites conserved in AvrRpt2 and RIN4. Several of these proteins were eliminated in an AvrRpt2-dependent manner in a transient in planta expression system. These results identify amino acids important for AvrRpt2 substrate recognition and cleavage as well as demonstrate AvrRpt2 protease activity eliminates multiple Arabidopsis proteins in a transient expression system.     

真菌引起支气管哮喘发展和加重的免疫学机制

支气管哮喘(简称哮喘)是常见的气道慢性炎症性疾病,多种环境因素可引起哮喘恶化加重,其中真菌感染是一个很重要的因素.有很多证据显示哮喘患者存在真菌致敏,且在真菌致敏和哮喘严重度之间存在强的相关性.近年来很多研究主要从真菌对免疫细胞和上皮细胞的影响两个方面阐释了真菌引起哮喘加重的免疫学机制.此免疫学机制的阐明对于探索治疗重...     

周期型马来丝虫半胱氨酸蛋白酶基因原核和真核表达质粒的构建

目的构建我国流行的周期型马来丝虫半胱氨酸蛋白酶（BmCP）基因原核和真核表达质粒，为进一步研究奠定基础。方法从周期型马来丝虫虫体中提取总RNA，反转录成cDNA，设计合成引物，以eDNA为模板，通过PCR从eDNA中扩增出目的基因，扩增产物经初步鉴定后将其克隆入pMD18-T载体，进行双酶切及PCR扩增鉴定，获得阳性重组质粒，进行测序分析和同源性比较。阳性克隆的质粒亚克隆至真核表达质粒peDNA3．1（＋），转化感受态大肠埃希菌（E-coli）DH5α，筛选阳性克隆，用PCR和双酶切鉴定阳性重组子。结果RT—PCR扩增出1条约1201bp的特异性条带，重组质粒双酶切和以质粒为模板的PCR结果与预期相符．DNA序列分析与GenBank已知的基因序列同源性为99％。构建了真核重组表达质粒peDNA3．1-BmCP。结论成功构建了周期型BmCP原核和真核重组表达质粒，为进一步研究该基因的功能提供了条件。     

真菌引起支气管哮喘发展和加重的免疫学机制

支气管哮喘（简称哮喘）是常见的气道慢性炎症性疾病,多种环境因素可引起哮喘恶化加重,其中真菌感染是一个很重要的因素。有很多证据显示哮喘患者存在真菌致敏,且在真菌致敏和哮喘严重度之间存在强的相关性。近年来很多研究主要从真菌对免疫细胞和上皮细胞的影响两个方面阐释了真菌引起哮喘加重的免疫学机制。此免疫学机制的阐明对于探索治疗重症哮喘的新途径有重要的意义。     

华支睾吸虫组织蛋白酶D样天冬氨酸蛋白酶基因的克隆表达和重组蛋白的免疫学分析

目的对新发现的华支睾吸虫(Clonorchis sinensis)的组织蛋白酶D样天冬氨酸蛋白酶基因进行克隆、表达和免疫学初步研究。方法将华支睾吸虫组织蛋白酶D样天冬氨酸蛋白酶基因(去除了信号肽编码序列)克隆到原核表达质粒pET-28a(+)中,在大肠杆菌BL-21/DE3中用IPTG诱导表达,表达产物通过十二烷基磺酸钠-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳(SDS-PAGE)进行鉴定,用镍离子金属螯合剂亲和层析柱进行纯化,纯化的重组蛋白免疫SD大鼠制备抗血清。用蛋白印迹(Western blotting)进行免疫学分析。结果PCR、双酶切及DNA测序结果均表明pET-28a(+)-组织蛋白酶D样天冬氨酸蛋白酶重组质粒构建成功。SDS-PAGE结果表明目的基因在大肠杆菌BL-21/DE3中获得高效表达,经亲和层析获得了高纯度蛋白。重组蛋白可被其免疫的SD大鼠血清识别,表明其具有免疫原性;并且能识别感染了华支睾吸虫的SD大鼠血清,表明具有免疫反应性。结论华支睾吸虫组织蛋白酶D样天冬氨酸蛋白酶基因可在原核表达系统中获得具有免疫原性的高效表达,为进一步研究该蛋白的功能奠定了基础。     

Guarding against hidden haemolysis during dialysis: an overview. Summary of the EDTNA/ERCA Journal Club discussion Spring 2007

The paper discussed during spring 2007 was a case study report entitled "Haemolysis: A Hidden Danger" published in The Nephrology Nursing Journal. The authors, Elisabeth Harman and Paula Dutka, agreed to follow the discussion and respond to points raised. Sixteen contributors from ten different countries provided insights into the potential causes, symptoms and effects of both acute and hidden haemolysis during dialysis, as well as discussing some of the safety systems that can be used to try and minimise occurrences. The use of blood volume monitoring as a potential method of 'seeing' hidden haemolysis was explored as well as some reporting mechanisms and organisational safeguards that are used to manage the risks.     

Fibromyalgia and obesity: the hidden link

Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder of uncertain etiology, characterized by widespread pain, muscle tenderness, and decreased pain threshold to pressure and other stimuli. Obesity is a well-known aggravating factor for certain rheumatologic conditions, such as knee osteoarthritis. Emerging evidences are exploring the link between obesity and other rheumatic diseases, such as fibromyalgia. Epidemiological data show that fibromyalgia patients have higher prevalence of obesity (40%) and overweight (30%) in multiple studies compared with healthy patients. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain “the hidden link”, but at this time is not possible to ascertain whether obesity is cause or consequence of fibromyalgia. Among mechanisms proposed, there are the following: impaired physical activity, cognitive and sleep disturbances, psychiatric comorbidity and depression, dysfunction of thyroid gland, dysfunction of the GH/IGF-1 axis, impairment of the endogenous opioid system. In this article, we review the scientific evidence supporting a possible link between obesity and fibromyalgia, how obesity influences fibromyalgia symptoms and how fibromyalgia severity can be improved by weight loss. In addition, we analyze the possible mechanisms by which fibromyalgia and obesity interrelate.     

The Effects of Amiloride and Age on Oxygen Consumption Coupled to Electrogenic Sodium Transport in the Human Sigmoid Colon

Background/Aim:

Aerobic metabolism is necessary for ion transport in many transporting epithelia, including the human colonic epithelium. We assessed the effects of the epithelial sodium channel blocker, amiloride, on oxygen consumption and short-circuit current of the human sigmoid epithelium to determine whether these effects were influenced by the age of the subject.

Materials and Methods:

Segments of the sigmoid colon were obtained from the safety margin of resections performed in patients of 62–77 years of age. Isolated mucosa preparations were obtained and mounted in airtight Ussing chambers, fit for simultaneous measurement of short-circuit current and oxygen concentration, before and after blocking epithelial sodium channels with amiloride (0.1 mmol/L). Regression analyses were performed to assess the associations between short-circuit current, oxygen consumption, and age of the subject as well as to define the relationship between the decreases in short-circuit current and oxygen consumption after blockade.

Results:

Epithelial sodium channel blockade caused an 80% reduction in short-circuit current and a 26% reduction in oxygen consumption. Regression analysis indicated that both changes were significantly related (r = 0.884; P = 0.0007). Oxygen consumption decreased by 1 μmol/h/cm² for each 25 μA/cm² decrease in short-circuit current. Neither short-circuit current nor oxygen consumption had any significant relationship with the age of the subjects.

Conclusion:

The decrease in epithelial oxygen consumption caused by amiloride is proportional to the decrease in short-circuit current and independent of the age of the subject.     

Pregnancy loss and thrombophilia: the elusive link

Recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) affects 1% pregnancies and is multi-factorial in origin. The role of the acquired thrombophilia antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) as a common and potentially treatable cause of RPL is well established but this is less so for inherited thrombophilia. In obstetric APS the combination of aspirin and heparin has improved outcomes. By analogy, the use of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) has become commonplace in women with inherited thrombophilia and also those with unexplained miscarriage to help safeguard the pregnancy. This review will examine the pathophysiological role of thrombophilia in pregnancy loss, and the evidence for anticoagulant-based intervention. The limited data supporting the use of heparin for women with RPL and inherited thrombophilia suggests adoption of a more cautious and judicious approach in this setting.     

Anticoagulants in thrombosis and cancer: the missing link

Many cancer patients reportedly have a hypercoagulable state, with recurrent thrombosis due to the impact of cancer cells and chemotherapy on the coagulation cascade. Studies have demonstrated that unfractionated heparin (UFH) or low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) interferes with various processes involved in tumor growth and metastasis. These processes might include fibrin formation, binding of heparin to angiogenic growth factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor, modulation of tissue factor, and other mechanisms. Clinical trials have indicated a clinically relevant effect of LMWH as compared with UFH on the survival of cancer patients with deep vein thrombosis. Similarly, the impact of warfarin on the survival of cancer patients with thromboembolic disorders was demonstrated. Recent studies from our laboratory defined the role of an LMWH (tinzaparin), warfarin, anti-factor VIIa, and recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor in the modulation of angiogenesis, tumor growth, and tumor metastasis.