Sagittal gait patterns in spastic diplegia

Classifications of gait patterns in spastic diplegia have been either qualitative, based on clinical recognition, or quantitative, based on cluster analysis of kinematic data. Qualitative classifications have been much more widely used but concerns have been raised about the validity of classifications, which are not based on quantitative data. We have carried out a cross-sectional study of 187 children with spastic diplegia who attended our gait laboratory and devised a simple classification of sagittal gait patterns based on a combination of pattern recognition and kinematic data. We then studied the evolution of gait patterns in a longitudinal study of 34 children who were followed for more than one year and demonstrated the reliability of our classification.     

Calcaneal gait in spastic diplegia after heel cord lengthening: a study with gait analysis

Calcaneal gait or deformity can be a significant complication after heel cord lengthening. After heel cord lengthening, 20 children with spastic diplegia were evaluated by gait analysis to define calcaneal gait objectively and describe associated morbidity. Mean age was 5 years 2 months (range 2 years 7 months to 8 years 2 months), and mean length of follow-up was 5 years 8 months (range 1 years 1 month 11 year 3 months). Calcaneal gait was defined as dorsiflexion 1 SD beyond the mean in the sagittal plane for all phases of stance. Increased ankle dorsiflexion during mid-stance most accurately predicts calcaneal gait. Through gait analysis, a 30% (6 of 20) prevalence of calcaneal gait suggests that an increased incidence of calcaneal gait may be present after heel cord lengthening.     

Correction of severe crouch gait in patients with spastic diplegia with use of multilevel orthopaedic surgery

BACKGROUND: Severe crouch gait in patients with spastic diplegia causes excessive loading of the patellofemoral joint and may result in anterior knee pain, gait deterioration, and progressive loss of function. Multilevel orthopaedic surgery has been used to correct severe crouch gait, but no cohort studies or long-term results have been reported, to our knowledge. METHODS: In order to be eligible for the present retrospective cohort study, a patient had to have a severe crouch gait, as defined by sagittal plane kinematic data, that had been treated with multilevel orthopaedic surgery as well as a complete clinical, radiographic, and instrumented gait analysis assessment. The surgical intervention consisted of lengthening of contracted muscle-tendon units and correction of osseous deformities, followed by the use of ground-reaction ankle-foot orthoses until stable biomechanical realignment of the lower limbs during gait was achieved. Outcome at one and five years after surgery was determined with use of selected sagittal plane kinematic and kinetic parameters and valid and reliable scales of functional mobility. Knee pain was recorded with use of a Likert scale, and all patients had radiographic examination of the knees. RESULTS: Ten subjects with severe crouch gait and a mean age of 12.0 years at the time of surgery were studied. After surgery, the patients walked in a more extended posture, with increased extension at the hip and knee and reduced dorsiflexion at the ankle. Pelvic tilt increased, and normalized walking speed was unaltered. Knee pain was diminished, and patellar fractures and avulsion injuries healed. Improvements in functional mobility were found, and, at the time of the five-year follow-up, fewer patients required the use of wheelchairs or crutches in the community than had been the case prior to intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Multilevel orthopaedic surgery for older children and adolescents with severe crouch gait is effective for relieving stress on the knee extensor mechanism, reducing knee pain, and improving function and independence.     

Severe crouch gait in spastic diplegia can be prevented: a population-based study

We studied the prevalence of severe crouch gait over a 15-year period in a defined population of children with spastic diplegia and Gross Motor Function Classification System levels II and III, to determine if there had been a decrease following changes to the management of equinus gait. These changes were replacing observational with three-dimensional gait analysis, replacing single level with multilevel surgery, and replacing gastrocsoleus lengthening with gastrocnemius recession. Of 464 children and adolescents with spastic diplegia who underwent three-dimensional gait analysis, 27 had severe crouch gait. Seventeen of these had been managed by isolated lengthening of the gastrocsoleus. Following changes in the management of equinus gait, the prevalence of severe crouch gait decreased from 25% and stabilised at a significantly lower rate, fluctuating between 0% and 4% annually (p < 0.001). We conclude that severe crouch gait in this population was precipitated by isolated lengthening of the gastrocsoleus. These findings may be relevant to other surgical populations, as severe crouch gait may be a useful way to monitor the quality of the surgical management of abnormal gait in children with cerebral palsy and spastic diplegia.     

Postoperative gait velocity and mean knee flexion in stance of ambulatory children with spastic diplegia four years or more after multilevel surgery

Factors associated with longer-term outcomes of multilevel orthopaedic surgery in ambulatory children with cerebral palsy using a multivariate approach were evaluated using a retrospective pretest-posttest design. The population included 20 ambulatory children with spastic diplegia who had undergone multilevel orthopaedic surgery with a minimum of 4-year interval between a preoperative and a postoperative gait assessment. Multiple regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with postoperative velocity and mean knee flexion in stance. Independent variables included in the regression models were velocity, mean knee flexion in stance, age at preoperative evaluation, Gross Motor Function Classification System level, use of ankle-foot orthoses, leg length, age-adjusted body mass index, number of surgical procedures, and range of motion of hip and knee. Children who demonstrated faster postoperative gait velocity 4 years or more after surgery were younger at the time of initial evaluation, had undergone fewer surgical procedures, had faster preoperative gait velocity, used ankle-foot orthoses postoperatively, and had increased hip extension range of motion postoperatively (R = 0.55). Children who demonstrated greater knee flexion in stance 4 years or more after surgery had undergone more surgical procedures, greater postoperative popliteal angle, and less knee extension range of motion (R = 0.73). This study demonstrates the usefulness of a multivariate approach toward understanding and predicting outcomes. The results of this study will provide clinicians and researchers more information about those factors associated with maintained improvements in the longer term and may be useful for treatment planning.     

内侧腘绳肌延长术对双侧痉挛性脑瘫下肢肌肉长度的影响

目的 观察内侧胭绳肌延长术对双测痉挛性脑瘫下肢肌肉长度的影响.方法 将双测痉挛性脑瘫患者分为两组,一组为髂腰肌组5例(10侧肢体),即内侧胭绳肌延长,股直肌远端转位加髂腰肌延长术.另一组为非髂腰肌组5例(10侧肢体),即内侧胭绳肌延长,股直肌远端转位术.利用计算机模拟骨肌肉步态模型技术,选择性计算术后下肢相关肌肉的肌肉长度,并对比分析.结果 髂腰肌组中患者的股二头肌长头肌肉长度,在步态周期中的平均值、最小值和总长度分别为0.5000±0.0080、0.4800±0.0059、50.8600±0.8084,明显长于非髂腰肌组患者(P＜0.05).股二头肌短头肌肉长度最小值在步态周期中所出现的时间(81.6700±4.3221)%GC,较非髂腰肌组患者(75.1300±1.8851)%GC明显延迟(P＜0.01),半腱肌和半膜肌肌肉长度最小值在步态周期中出现的时间分别为(72.6700±3.0768)%Gc和(73.0000±3.6332)%GC,较非髂腰肌组出现的时间(68.500±1.5119)%Gc和(68.1300±1.5526)%Gc明显延迟(P＜0.05).结论 屈髋肌挛缩组患者在施行内侧胭绳肌延长、股直肌远端转位和髂腰肌延长术后,出现胭绳肌功能不全模型的原因,是由于外侧腘肌肌肉长度较长和内侧腘绳肌肌肉长度相对较长.     

Propulsive function during gait in diplegic children: evaluation after surgery for gait improvement

Seventeen patients with diplegic cerebral palsy were assessed by clinical examination and three-dimensional gait analysis before and after surgery to improve gait. Selection of surgical procedures was according to a fixed set of selection criteria. The average postoperative follow-up was 3.8 years (range, 2.6-5.7 years). Clinical examination revealed an improved range of motion for the ankle and no reduction in the power grade at the hip, knee and ankle after surgery. Kinematic parameters showed improved knee extension in stance and significant changes towards a normal ankle motion pattern postoperatively. Kinetic evaluation demonstrated that most of the total power during walking was generated at the hip, with the ankle contributing a small part. After surgery, patients walked faster with an increased power generation at the hip during first double support and at the ankle during push off. Power generation at the hip in stance is pointed out to be an important mechanism for propulsion during walking.     

Multilevel orthopaedic surgery in group IV spastic hemiplegia

Most children with spastic hemiplegia have high levels of function and independence but fixed deformities and gait abnormalities are common. The classification proposed by Winters et al is widely used to interpret hemiplegic gait patterns and plan intervention. However, this classification is based on sagittal kinematics and fails to consider important abnormalities in the transverse plane. Using three-dimensional gait analysis, we studied the incidence of transverse-plane deformity and gait abnormality in 17 children with group IV hemiplegia according to Winters et al before and after multilevel orthopaedic surgery.We found that internal rotation of the hip and pelvic retraction were consistent abnormalities of gait in group-IV hemiplegia. A programme of multilevel surgery resulted in predictable improvement in gait and posture, including pelvic retraction. In group IV hemiplegia pelvic retraction appeared in part to be a compensating mechanism to control foot progression in the presence of medial femoral torsion. Correction of this torsion can improve gait symmetry and function.     

One-session surgery for bilateral correction of lower limb deformities in spastic diplegia

Fifty-seven patients with spastic diplegia underwent one-stage bilateral proximal soft tissue release for correction of lower limb deformities. The indications for surgery were improvement of gait and posture and facilitation of toilet care. Significant improvement in ambulatory status followed operation, and most parents were pleased.     

A 2-year follow-up of outcomes following orthopedic surgery or selective dorsal rhizotomy in children with spastic diplegia

The purpose of this study was to prospectively compare the effect of orthopedic surgery (OS) and selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) on muscle tone, range of motion, gait and energy efficiency in ambulatory children with spastic diplegia. Twenty-five children with a diagnosis of spastic diplegia, with a mean age of 73 months, were evaluated prior to surgery and 1 and 2 years postoperatively; however, only the preoperative and 2-year postoperative data are reported here. Eighteen children received SDR and seven received OS. Children were evaluated with the Ashworth scale for muscle tone, passive range of motion (PROM), gait analysis and oxygen consumption for energy cost. Significant improvements were seen in PROM, muscle tone, gait kinematics and oxygen cost regardless of surgical intervention. Although OS and SDR interventions influence motor function through different mechanisms, the gait and energy outcomes 2 years following OS or SDR are similar.     

Multilevel orthopedic surgery for crouch gait in cerebral palsy: An evaluation using functional mobility and energy cost

Background:

The evidence for the effectiveness of orthopaedic surgery to correct crouch gait in cerebral diplegic is insufficient. The crouch gait is defined as walking with knee flexion and ankle dorsiflexion through out the stance phase. Severe crouch gait in patients with spastic diplegia causes excessive loading of the patellofemoral joint and may result in anterior knee pain, gait deterioration, and progressive loss of function. We retrospectively evaluated the effect of surgery on the mobility and energy consumption at one year or more with the help of validated scales and scores.

Materials and Methods:

18 consecutive patients with mean age of 14.6 years with cerebral diplegia with crouched gait were operated for multilevel orthopaedic surgery. Decisions for surgery were made with the observations on gait analysis and physical examination. The surgical intervention consisted of lengthening of short muscle-tendon units, shortening of long muscles and correction of osseous deformities. The paired samples t test was used to compare values of physical examination findings, walking speed and physiological cost index. Two paired sample Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to compare functional walking scales.

Results:

After surgery, improvements in functional mobility, walking speed and physiological cost index were found. No patient was able to walk 500 meters before surgery while all were able to walk after surgery. The improvements that were noted at one year were maintained at two years.

Conclusions:

Multilevel orthopedic surgery for older children and adolescents with crouch gait is effective for improving function and independence.     

Development of gait in spastic children with cerebral palsy

The gait of 50 spastic children 3-16 years old was recorded and analyzed. All children showed abnormal values of both basal parameters and phases of the stride. In gait velocity and stride length, their values were lower than normal, but they increased with age, with stride length increasing in parallel with normal values. Stride frequency showed a decrease with age, the reverse of normal. Stance and swing, when normalized with regard to stride duration, showed no change with age in spastic children. Also, stance was longer than in normal children, the same tendency as shown by double support. Hemiplegic children showed clearly asymmetric phases. The decreasing stride frequency with increasing age indicates a relative slowing of movements. Most changes with age were, however, the same as in normal children. The prolonged stance and double support suggest deteriorated postural control, resulting in an increased need of support.     

Conversion of biarticular to monoarticular muscles as a component of multilevel surgery in spastic diplegia

We treated 20 children (40 limbs) with diplegic cerebral palsy who could walk by multilevel soft tissue operative procedures including conversion of the biarticular semitendinosus and gastrocnemius to monoarticular muscles. The mean age at surgery was 11.5 years (5.6 to 17.0). All patients underwent clinical and radiological examination and three-dimensional instrumented gait analysis before and at a mean of 3.1 years (2.0 to 4.5) after surgery. The passive range of movement at the ankle, knee and hip showed improvement at follow-up. Kinematic parameters indicated a reduced pelvic range of movement and improvement of extension of the knee in single stance after operation (p < 0.0001). However, post-operative back-kneeing was detected in five of the 40 limbs. The kinetic studies showed that the power of the hamstrings and plantar flexors of the ankle was maintained while the maximum knee extensor moment during stance was reduced. The elimination of knee flexor activity of semitendinosus and gastrocnemius combined with transfer of distal rectus femoris led to an improvement in gait as confirmed by gait analysis.     

Changes in gait patterns after operations in children with spastic cerebral palsy

Summary We have utilised a scoring system with the aid of a specially designed worksheet to measure gait ability in spastic children with cerebral palsy before and after corrective soft tissue operations. Postoperatively, there were obvious improvements in gait especially in the mobility of the leg and the foot. Comparison between a visually assessed score and objectively recorded values using foot-switches showed a good correlation. The postoperative improvement was most obvious in hemiplegic children, but was also present in diplegic children following both single and complex one-stage operations.

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Résumé Afin de mesurer les possibilités de marche chez les enfants spastiques atteints de paralysie cérébrale, nous avons utilisé une cotation obtenue grâce à une abaque spécialement réalisée pour cette investigation. Les mesures ont été faites avant et après les opérations correctrices portant sur les parties molles.En post-opératoire on a noté une amélioration indiscutable de la marche, notamment en ce qui concernait la mobilité de la jambe et du pied. La comparaison entre l'estimation visuelle et les enregistrements objectifs a montré une bonne corrélation. L'amélioration post-opératoire est plus marquée chez les enfants hémiplégiques, mais elle existe aussi chez les enfants diplégiques, tant après des interventions simples que complexes.

     

Treatment of spastic diplegia in patients with cerebral palsy: Part II

This review article describes the evaluation, treatment options, and expected outcomes for many of the common deformities of the lower extremities in patients with cerebral palsy. The evaluation tools including gait analysis will be applied to each specific deformity. Dynamic components are addressed with spasticity management and appropriate muscle and tendon procedures. The static components are treated with bony procedures, including various osteotomies and arthrodesis, incorporating biomechanical principles.