Caffeinated Alcohol Use and Expectancies for Caffeine Versus Alcohol

Background: Caffeinated alcoholic beverage (CAB) use is related to alcohol-related risk. Limited research has examined outcome expectancies and CAB consumption. Objectives: This study tested the predictive utility of caffeine and alcohol expectancies in CAB use outcomes (i.e. quantity, frequency, and alcohol-related harms). Methods: Participants were 419 (302 women) alcohol and caffeine users from a mid-sized urban university. Data collection occurred between August 2010 and December 2011. Participants completed measures of caffeine and alcohol expectancies, alcohol problems, alcohol use, and CAB use. Results: Caffeine and alcohol expectancies contributed uniquely to approximately 12% of the variability in quantity, 8% in frequency, and 16% in problems. When examined separately, alcohol expectancies explained approximately 10% to 11% of the variance, whereas caffeine expectancies accounted for 6% of the variance in CAB use quantity. For CAB use frequency, alcohol and caffeine expectancies accounted for about 8% and 4%, respectively. Alcohol expectancies accounted for 12% to 14% of variance, whereas caffeine expectancies accounted for 4% to 6% in alcohol-related harms. Conclusions/ Importance: The present study sought to address a gap in the literature regarding the contributions of expectancies in the prediction of CAB use. Our findings provide support for the predictive utility of both caffeine and alcohol expectancies in accounting for individual variability in CAB use but alcohol expectancies may exert greater impact on use patterns. Inclusion of both types of expectancies in larger theoretical frameworks may be beneficial in gaining a more complete and deeper conceptualization of this risky behavior.     

Alcohol Consumption and its Related Harms in the Netherlands Since 1960: Relationships With Planned and Unplanned Factors

Aim: to establish which unplanned (social developments) and planned (alcohol policy measures) factors are related to per capita consumption and alcohol-related harms in the Netherlands. Methods: linear regression was used to establish which of the planned and unplanned factors were most strongly connected with alcohol consumption and harms. Artificial Neural Analysis (ANN) was used to inspect the interconnections between all variables. Results: mothers age at birth was most strongly associated with increase in consumption. The ban on selling alcoholic beverages at petrol station was associated with a decrease in consumption. The linear regression of harms did not show any relation between alcohol policy measures and harms. The ANN-analyses indicate a very high interconnectedness between all variables allowing no causal inferences. Exceptions are the relation between price of beer and wine and the consumption of these beverages and the relation between a decrease in transport mortality and the increased use of breathalyzers tests and a restriction of paracommercial selling. Conclusions: unplanned factors are most strongly associated with per capita consumption and harms. ANN-analysis indicates that price of alcoholic beverages, breath testing, and restriction of sales may have had some influence. The study's limitations are noted.     

Effects of caffeine on alcohol-related changes in behavioural control and perceived intoxication in light caffeine consumers

Rationale

Caffeinated alcoholic beverages have been associated with increased risk of alcohol-related harms. However, few studies have examined these combined effects on behavioural control, which is believed to underlie many of the negative effects of alcohol consumption. In addition, studies have often omitted subjective measures, and none have directly assessed the role of caffeine consumer history.

Objectives

To examine the combined effects of alcohol and caffeine on measures of behavioural control and perceived intoxication in abstinent, light caffeine consumers.

Methods

Participants (n?=?28; 50% male) attended four sessions at which they consumed one of the following beverages in a randomised order: placebo, alcohol alone (0.6?g/kg), caffeine alone (2.0?mg/kg), and alcohol/caffeine. They completed measures of mood, intoxication, anxiety and alcohol craving before and after a task battery comprising measures of behavioural control and reaction time performance.

Results

Caffeine attenuated alcohol-related performance deficits on stop-signal accuracy, had no effect on go–no-go performance deficits, and worsened accuracy on the Stroop task. Caffeine did not influence absolute changes in perceived intoxication but there was suggestion that caffeine may have changed the nature of intoxication with increases in stimulation.

Conclusions

Caffeine appears to have mixed effects on alcohol intoxication that are task-dependent. We found increased stimulation in the alcohol/caffeine condition, supporting the contention that caffeinated alcoholic beverages enable an individual to drink for longer. Future research should model real world drinking behaviour by examining how these effects change across multiple drink administrations.     

Beliefs,Behaviors, and Contexts of Adolescent Caffeine Use: A Focus Group Study

Background: Caffeinated products are widely available to adolescents, and consumption of caffeine products—energy drinks and coffee in particular—is on the rise in this age group (Branum, Rossen, & Schoendorf, 2014). Yet, little is known about the psychosocial context of caffeine use. Previous studies on adolescent caffeine use have focused on caffeine's acute physiological effects, rather than the psychosocial contexts and beliefs regarding different types of caffeinated beverages (e.g., coffee, energy drinks, soda). Objectives: The current research examines the contexts and beliefs associated with adolescents' use of caffeinated beverages (e.g., coffee, energy drinks, soda) using a focus group approach. Methods: Eleven focus group interviews (49 total participants) addressed adolescents' motivations for and patterns of caffeine use; they were transcribed and axial coding was used to identify common themes. Results: Coffee and energy drinks were perceived to be the most popular caffeinated beverages. Reasons for consuming caffeine included the effect of caffeine as a stimulant, the pleasant feelings experienced when drinking it, and the fact that caffeine was available. As for contexts, coffee was consumed in more diverse social contexts than other caffeinated beverages. Friends and sports were the most popular contexts for energy drink use. Conclusions: The present findings inform adolescent health promotion efforts and provide researchers and practitioners alike detailed information in adolescents' own words about how and why they use caffeine. Adolescents' beliefs about caffeinated products are not uniform; the reasons adolescents articulate regarding their use of coffee, soda, and energy drinks are different across contexts and beverage type.     

Mixing alcohol with artificially sweetened beverages: Prevalence and correlates among college students

Mixing alcohol with diet beverages, as compared to mixing the same amount of alcohol with a regular beverage, is associated with greater intoxication. This may occur because diet mixers increase alcohol absorption rates. Thus, it is plausible that the use of diet mixers may increase the risk of alcohol-related harms. The current study sought to (1) determine the rate/frequency of use in among college students, (2) examine the relationship between mixing alcohol with diet beverages and alcohol-related problems, above typical alcohol use and sensation seeking, and (3) explore key traits (gender, restricting food while drinking, and body mass index [BMI]) that may characterize users. Participants were 686 (73% female) undergraduate students who completed self-reports of alcohol use (including diet mixer use), alcohol-related problems, eating behaviors while drinking, sensation seeking, and demographic information. Results revealed that about 36% of the sample reported consuming alcohol with diet mixers, and users typically consumed this beverage at least once a month. Students who reported mixing alcohol with diet beverages experienced more alcohol-related problems. And, the more frequently one consumed this beverage, the more problems were reported. These associations were found after controlling for typical level of alcohol use and sensation seeking. No differences were observed between user-status on gender, eating behaviors while drinking, and BMI. Our findings suggest that mixing alcohol with diet beverages could be a risk factor for experiencing more alcohol-related harms. Further research is needed to understand this relationship, as it may help guide intervening efforts aimed to reduce alcohol-related risks.     

Drinking Refusal Self-Efficacy and Intended Alcohol Consumption During a Mass-Attended Youth Event

Background: Mass-attended youth events represent a substantial public health challenge due to high levels of alcohol consumption and corresponding high rates of alcohol-related harm. Although previous research has documented the protective effect of high drinking refusal self-efficacy (DRSE) on alcohol consumption in general, there is a lack of research examining the role of DRSE in reducing consumption during mass-attended youth events and the factors associated with DRSE in these contexts. Objectives: This study aimed to identify potentially modifiable factors that influence DRSE and drinking intentions to inform interventions designed to reduce alcohol-related harm during mass-attended events. Methods: Australian secondary school students (n = 586; 70% female) in their final two years of high school completed an online survey assessing their alcohol consumption intentions for Schoolies, their perceived degree of DRSE, and other individual and environmental factors. Path analysis was used to assess a mediational model examining factors associated with DRSE and alcohol consumption intentions. Results: DRSE was found to be significantly associated with intended alcohol consumption during Schoolies. Specifically, leavers who believed they would not be able to refuse others' offers of alcoholic drinks reported significantly greater alcohol consumption intentions. Results also revealed that DRSE was enhanced in those respondents who believed there would be a variety of non-drinking activities and non-alcoholic beverages available to them during Schoolies. Conclusion: Results suggest the need to increase leavers' confidence in their ability to refuse unwanted alcoholic beverages and highlight the importance of providing celebration options that do not involve alcohol consumption.     

The Association of Alcohol Consumption with Tobacco Use in Black and White College Students

This study explored the association of alcohol and tobacco use among college students. A survey was administered in 2004 to 2,189 Black and White students from the southeastern United States. The prevalence of alcohol and tobacco use, tobacco use characteristics according to level of alcohol consumed, and percentage of students using tobacco according to type of alcoholic beverages consumed were evaluated. The interaction of race and gender with alcohol and tobacco use was explored. Our findings extend prior investigations that have found alcohol use associated with smoking and suggest attention be paid to the relation of alcohol to other forms of tobacco. Racial and gender differences are highlighted. This study was funded by Mayo Clinic. The study's limitations were noted.     

Semester and event-specific motives for alcohol use during Spring Break: Associated protective strategies and negative consequences

Motives surrounding alcohol use behavior are important for understanding college student drinking. However, no previous research has addressed how motives for and against drinking during specific events associated with high-risk drinking, such as Spring Break, may differ from motives for and against drinking during the regular semester. Further, we examine the extent to which semester and Spring Break motives are associated with alcohol use, protective behavioral strategies (PBS), and consequences. Participants were college students (N = 261; 55% women) who provided data both immediately prior to (Wave 1) and after (Wave 2) Spring Break. Fun/Social motives for drinking were greater for Spring Break, and Driving motives against drinking were lower for Spring Break, compared to semester drinking. Relax and Image motives for drinking and Physical/Behavioral motives for not drinking during Spring Break did not differ from semester motives. Spring Break motives for and against drinking were associated with total drinks, maximum drinks, PBS, and experienced negative consequences during Spring Break. Students' specific motives regarding drinking during Spring Break predict high-risk drinking and may be utilized in creating salient event-specific interventions.     

Alcohol Expectancies Mediate the Relationship Between Age of First Intoxication and Drinking Outcomes in College Binge Drinkers

Background: While prior research has shown that age of first intoxication (AI) is associated with negative alcohol outcomes, limited research has examined factors accounting for this relationship. Alcohol expectancies, or beliefs about the effects of alcohol, may explain such associations as both positive and negative expectancies have been shown to be key predictors of drinking outcomes. Objective: The present study examined expectancies as mediators between early AI and alcohol-related outcomes. Method: Data collection occurred in 2012 and 2013. Participants were college students (N = 562, 65.8% women) who completed an online survey including measures of alcohol use history, alcohol expectancies, typical alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model. Results: Our findings support a model whereby AI is associated with drinking through its influence on both positive and negative expectancies. Specifically, an earlier AI was associated with stronger alcohol expectancies, which in turn, was associated with heavier alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Conclusions/Importance: These findings are consistent with expectancy theory and previous research suggesting that more experienced drinkers hold stronger drinking-related beliefs, be it positive or negative, and these expectancies ultimately explain variability in alcohol use and problems. Our findings further support that expectancies play an important role in the initiation of drinking behavior.     

Harm Reduction for Alcohol-Use-Related Problems among College Students

Traditionally, the college Spring Break in the U.S. is used by a significant number of university students as an opportunity for excessive alcohol use. Thus, this fairly discreet time period lends itself to the introduction of a harm reduction intervention for problems related to alcohol use. During the week prior to the Spring Break, university students completed a diary for the eight days of the break (Saturday to Saturday). Students were asked to predict their alcohol consumption and the frequency and type of alcohol problems they would experience during the Spring Break. These same students were then asked to complete the diary one week after the Spring Break reporting their actual consumption and alcohol problems. A control group also completed the diary after Spring Break. Although consumption rates for beer, wine and liquor did not differ between groups, students who completed the diary before Spring Break reported a significantly lower frequency of alcohol problems for the eight day period. Results are discussed in terms of harm reduction strategies for high risk periods and targeting alcohol problems.     

Alcohol Marketing in the 21st Century: New Methods,Old Problems

Marketing and advertising for alcoholic beverages is abundant throughout the United States and the rest of the world. Despite the fact that alcohol advertising is related to earlier initiation of drinking, higher rates of consumption, and positive expectancies among youth populations, alcohol companies continue to design new products and related campaigns with youth-friendly attributes. Alcopops and caffeinated alcoholic beverages are two particularly dangerous types of products, and new social networking technologies make direct promotion easy and voluminous. In order to stop the harm from these alcohol products and promotion, advocacy from the research community is imperative.     

Drinking behaviours and alcohol preferences of female and male students at a Polish university in 2000–2016

The aim of this study was to describe and compare the drinking behaviours and alcohol preferences of female and male university students. A total of 5514 female and 4264 male students (Poland) participated in the study. Empirical data were collected every 2 years in 2000–2016, with the use of an anonymous questionnaire. The respondents were asked about the frequency of alcohol consumption, the preferred alcoholic beverages and their attitudes towards drinking. Data were analysed statistically by the Kruskal–Wallis test, Dunn’s post-hoc test and the Mann–Whitney U test. Around 60–70% of the surveyed students were drinking sporadically, whereas 10–12% abstained from alcohol. Around 9–10% of the subjects had experienced alcohol-induced blackouts. Beer was the most popular alcoholic beverage, and it was consumed by 50–60% of the respondents. Seventy percent of the respondents were of the opinion that alcohol should be available on campus, and they had no intention to abstain from drinking. Both similar trends and inter-gender differences were observed among female and male students, most of whom had liberal attitudes towards alcohol consumption. Vodka continues to be popular among male students. Female students traditionally opted for weaker–strength alcoholic beverages and were more willing to try new types of alcohol.     

Public self-consciousness,pre-loading and drinking harms among university students

Background: Social anxiety and self-consciousness are associated with alcohol-related problems in students. The practice of pre-loading is one avenue for exploration regarding this relationship. Individuals may pre-load to reduce social anxiety and feel more confident when socializing, which could lead to the increased harms experienced. The current study aimed to explore reasons for pre-loading, and whether public and private self-consciousness and social anxiety were related to pre-loading, increased drinking, and harms. Objectives: Prospective study with four-week follow up of 325 UK students aged 18-–30 years old. Participants completed measures of private and public self-consciousness, social anxiety, alcohol consumption, alcohol-related harms, and pre-loading. Results: Financial motives and mood-related reasons, such as gaining confidence were reported as reasons for pre-loading. Pre-loading predicted hazardous alcohol consumption, but social anxiety, and public and private self-consciousness did not. However, pre-loading, public self-consciousness, and social anxiety predicted alcohol-related harms. Furthermore, public self-consciousness mediated the relationship between pre-loading and harms in a positive direction and this appeared to be more relevant in high-risk (AUDIT 8+) than low-risk drinkers. Conclusions: Students who scored higher in public self-consciousness appeared to be at greater risk of harms from pre-loading. Further research should examine this relationship with particular attention to high-risk drinkers, and explore which aspects of a night out are related to heightened self-consciousness. Interventions could incorporate measures to reduce public self-consciousness, in order to reduce the negative impacts of pre-loading.     

Comparison of Short Questionnaires on Alcohol Drinking Behavior in a Nonclinical Population of 36-Year-Old Men and Women

Little is known on the diagnostic characteristics of brief questionnaires on alcohol drinking behaviors. This report investigates the determinants of three short alcohol questionnaires and investigates their diagnostic utility as screening tools for alcohol-related problems in a general population from The Netherlands. This report uses cross-sectional data obtained in the year 2000 from 36-year-old healthy male (N = 166) and female (N = 165) volunteers who reported to drink alcohol at least occasionally. Since they were 13-years-old these volunteers have been members of the Amsterdam Growth And Health Longitudinal Study, which started as a school-based study in 1977. Among many other variables, quantity–frequency questions (QF), the CAGE questionnaire, and a question on the highest number of alcoholic units consumed on one occasion during the previous month (MAX) were asked. The sensitivity, specificity, Cohen's kappa, and diagnostic odds ratio of QF, CAGE, MAX, and combinations of these three brief questionnaires were calculated using a 7-item questionnaire on alcohol-related problems as reference. Both in women and men, the prevalence of most alcohol-related problems and of a high QF, CAGE, and MAX was low. QF, CAGE, and MAX, as well as all possible combinations of the three questionnaires, were poor in detecting last-year alcohol-related problems. The CAGE appeared to perform worse than the even shorter and easier-to-interpret QF and MAX. In this healthy population of 36-year-old men and women, using the QF, MAX, and especially the CAGE questionnaire as screening instruments for alcohol-related problems resulted in many false positive and false negative classifications.     

An Exploration of the Four-Factor Structure of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised Among Undergraduate Students in China

Background: College drinking has become a significant health issue in China; the current study addressed the gap that no prior research has investigated drinking motives among Chinese undergraduate students. Objectives: This study aimed to replicate the four-factor structure of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R) reported for Western populations. Additionally, the relationships between drinking motives and alcohol use were investigated. Methods: In 2012, 436 participants (mean age = 20.49 and SD = 1.49; 50% male) recruited from a college in China completed a self-administered survey in their classroom setting. Drinking motives were measured by the Chinese version of the DMQ-R; three indicators of alcohol use were assessed. Factor analysis was conducted to examine the factor structure of the DMQ-R, followed by regression analysis to investigate the associations between drinking motives and alcohol-related outcomes. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis failed to replicate the measurement model tested, but exploratory factor analysis identified a similar four-dimensional factor structure. Reliability and convergent and discriminant validity of the four factors were acceptable. The results also showed that social motives were related to alcohol use and heavy drinking; conformity motives were related to alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Enhancement motives were the strongest correlates of alcohol use; coping motives were the strongest correlates of heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems. Conclusions/Importance: The DMQ-R was a reliable and valid scale measuring four types of drinking motives among Chinese college students. Findings suggested that the motivational model of alcohol use may apply to studying college drinking in China.     

A naturalistic investigation of the effects of day-long consumption of tea, coffee and water on alertness, sleep onset and sleep quality

Rationale: The effects of caffeine, especially caffeinated coffee, on human performance have been extensively studied. However, few studies have been naturalistic representations of how tea/coffee is normally consumed in terms of dose and time of consumption. Objectives: This study investigated the effects of day-long consumption of tea, coffee and water on cognitive and psychomotor performance, and sleep quality at night. Methods: Thirty healthy volunteers received equal volume drinks equivalent to either 1 or 2 cups of tea (containing 37.5 mg or 75 mg caffeine), or coffee (75 mg or 150 mg caffeine), or water, in a randomised five-way crossover design. Drinks were administered on four occasions during the day (0900, 1300, 1700 and 2300 hours). A psychometric battery consisting of critical flicker fusion (CFF), choice reaction time (CRT) and subjective sedation (LARS) tests, was administered pre-dose and at frequent time points post-dose. The Leeds Sleep Evaluation Questionnaire (LSEQ) was completed each morning and a wrist actigraph was worn for the duration of the study. Results: Caffeinated beverages maintained CFF threshold over the whole day (P<0.05), independent of caffeine dose or beverage type. During the acute phase of beverage ingestion, caffeine significantly sustained performance compared to water after the first beverage for CFF and subjective sedation (P<0.05), and after the second beverage for the Recognition component of the CRT task (P<0.05). Additionally, there were significant differences between tea and coffee at 75 mg caffeine after the first drink. Compared to coffee, tea produced a significant increase in CFF threshold between 30 and 90 min post-consumption (P<0.01). However, following the second beverage caffeinated coffee at 75 mg significantly improved reaction time (P<0.05), compared to tea at the same dose, for the Recognition component of the CRT task. Caffeinated beverages had a dose dependent negative effect on sleep onset (P<0.001), sleep time (P<0.001) and sleep quality (P<0.001). Conclusions: These results indicate that ingestion of caffeinated beverages may maintain aspects of cognitive and psychomotor performance throughout the day and evening when caffeinated beverages are administered repeatedly. This study also demonstrates that day-long tea consumption produces similar alerting effects to coffee, despite lower caffeine levels, but is less likely to disrupt sleep. Other differences between tea and coffee were more subtle, and require further investigation. Received: 16 February 1999 / Final version: 20 December 1999     

A Longitudinal Study of European Students' Alcohol Use and Related Behaviors as They Travel Abroad to Study

Background: Travelling away from home can be associated with fewer limits on behavior, particularly for students who participate in exchange programs. Aims: To examine the effects of eight moderators on change in alcohol use and related negative outcomes, drug use and unprotected sexual behavior in European study abroad students before, during, and after their time abroad. Methods: A three wave (before departure, while abroad, and after their return) longitudinal design collecting data on the frequency and volume of alcohol consumed, heavy episodic drinking, alcohol-related outcomes, drug use, and unprotected casual sex. Results: The baseline survey was completed by 1145 students participating in one or two semester exchange programs (67.5% spent up to a semester abroad), of which 906 participated in two or more waves, representing 42 and 33 countries of origin and destination, respectively. Mean age was 22.2?years (SD?=?2.28) and 72.7% were female. Students increased the amount of alcohol consumed by 35% (B?=?0.32; 95% CI 0.287–0.349) and experienced more alcohol-related consequences (B?=?0.15; 95% CI 0.089–0.219) during the study abroad experience, though levels fell below pre-departure levels when they returned home. Factors related to greater alcohol use while abroad include pre-departure expectations about alcohol use during the study abroad experience, psychological adjustment to the host country, academic involvement, and host country living costs. No statistically meaningful change in drug use and unprotected sexual behavior was observed. Conclusions: Studying abroad exposes European students to additional time-limited alcohol-related health risks.     

Celebrating St. Patrick’s Day: Students’ Expectations,Intent, and Behavior

College students engage in risky alcohol use within a variety of contexts, including specific celebratory events. Student intentions and peer perceptions predict alcohol use; however, how these factors affect specific celebratory drinking may vary from typical alcohol use. The current study sought to better understand event-specific drinking among college students during St. Patrick’s Day, as compared to Spring Break. Undergraduate students (N = 82) at a campus with a unique traditional celebration of St. Patrick’s Day were surveyed. At Time 1, participants were asked to indicate how much alcohol they intended to drink and how much alcohol they expected other students to drink during St. Patrick’s Day and Spring Break. At Time 2, students reported on actual alcohol consumption during both events. Results indicated that participants reported greater intent to consume, expectation of peer consumption, and actual alcohol consumption during St. Patrick’s Day as compared to Spring Break. Neither sensation seeking nor impulsivity predicted alcohol use during either event. Findings are discussed in the context of understanding, preventing, and intervening with event-specific drinking among college students.     

Self-regulation as a buffer of the relationship between parental alcohol misuse and alcohol-related outcomes in first-year college students

Alcohol misuse among college students is a large public health concern, thus, it is imperative to identify factors that reduce this risk. One risk factor associated with developing alcohol-related problems is meeting criteria for being an adult child of an alcoholic (ACOA). Conversely, self-regulation has been identified as a protective factor that is inversely associated with drinking-related outcomes. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-regulation buffers the risk associated with ACOA status on alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences. In a sample of 195 first-year college students, we found that ACOA status had a unique effect on both alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences. Self-regulation was unrelated to alcohol use but inversely associated with alcohol-related consequences. Notably, self-regulation moderated the effect of ACOA status on alcohol-related problems (but not alcohol consumption) such that self-regulation was most strongly related to alcohol-related problems among ACOAs. Our results suggest that self-regulation helps explain the resilience of many ACOAs.     

Relationships between sensation seeking and use of caffeine, alcohol and cigarettes by New Zealand university students

Form V of Zuckerman's Senation-Seeking Scale (SSS) was completed by a sample of psychology undergraduate students along with a questionnaire relating to their regular consumption of caffeinated and alcoholic beverages, and use of cigarettes. While there were no gender differences in the use of caffeine and cigarettes, men reported consuming nearly twice as much alcohol per week as women. Use of alcohol (but not caffeine or cigarettes) was positively related to sensation seeking in the form of thrill and adventure seeking, and boredom susceptibility for men, and disinhibition for both genders. Women generally achieved lower SSS scores than men. For both genders, caffeine use was positively related to cigarette, but not alcohol use. There were no relationships between the use of cigarettes and alcohol.