Transdermal delivery of calcium channel blockers for hypertension

Introduction: Calcium channel blockers are a very important class of antihypertensive drugs. Most calcium channel blockers (CCBs) exhibiting low oral bioavailability are required to be taken more than once a day due to their short half-lives which result in poor patient compliance. There is an ineluctable requirement for improved drug-delivery devices for CCBs because of the quantum of their utilization and shortcoming associated with their conventional dosage forms.

Areas covered: There have been worthwhile research endeavors worldwide to investigate the skin permeation and to develop transdermal formulations of various categories of CCBs. This review explores the investigations on the feasibility and applicability of systemic delivery of various CCBs via skin.

Expert opinion: Transdermal delivery of CCBs has been particularly acknowledged as a potential drug-delivery route in the therapy of hypertension. Several overtures have been made to enhance delivery of these drugs via skin barrier. There have been remarkable research endeavors worldwide to investigate the skin permeation and to develop transdermal systems of various CCBs. Persistent advancement in this area holds promise for the long-term success in technologically advanced transdermal dosage forms being commercialized sooner rather than later.     

Clinical trials evaluating angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in the setting of acute myocardial infarction

There is strong evidence from controlled clinical trials that in the setting of acute myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure or isolated left ventricular dysfunction, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors started late during hospitalisation and continued in the long term, significantly reduced mortality and improved the prognosis. On the other hand, administration of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors during the first 24 h in unselected patients with acute myocardial infarction provided only a slight benefit in terms of mortality. Angiotensin-II receptor blockers have and are being examined in the setting of acute myocardial infarction with left ventricular dysfunction and can provide an alternative for patients who cannot tolerate angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. In this article, an evidence-based review of these major trials and suggestions for clinical application are presented.     

血管紧张肽转换酶抑制剂与血管紧张肽II受体拮抗剂的联合应用

血管紧张肽转换酶抑制剂和血管紧张肽II受体拮抗剂是临床上已证实的非常有效的抗高血压药物 ,在近年来的研究中发现它们在降压的同时还具有显著的心、肾保护作用 ,并且已有一定数量的临床试验结果显示 ,将 2类药物联合应用可以获得更强大的靶器官保护作用 ,并不会增加不良反应。我们需要更多的大规模临床试验来进一步确证血管紧张肽转换酶抑制剂和血管紧张肽II受体拮抗剂联合用药在这方面的有效性和安全性 ,使心、肾功能不全及有蛋白尿的病人获得最有益的治疗。     

我院血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂的用药分析

目的:分析血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂(ARB)的临床用药情况。方法:分别统计ARB药品用药频度(DDDs)、销售金额和平均日费用;比较2004-2006年ARB与血管紧张素转化酶抑制药(ACEI)的使用情况。结果:2001-2003年ARB平均日费用为7.66元,2004-2006年为6.81元,下降9.79%。ARB类药物每年销售总金额和DDDs均在增长,但增长速度逐年减弱,2004-2006年期间缬沙坦、厄贝沙坦2药的DDDs占总ARB类药物的DDDs的百分比分别为81.20%,82.05%,80.08%。平均日费用ARB类药物是ACEI的1.85倍。结论:ARB作为新型降压药,发展潜力巨大,但其日均费用较高,影响了临床使用。     

Advances in angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs)

Hypertension remains one of the most unmet medical needs of this century. While many drugs are available for treating hypertension, efforts are still insufficient to find potent therapeutic agents since cause for hypertension in all patients is not the same. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) have emerged as an important class of drugs in the treatment of hypertension, congestive heart failure (CHF), protenuric renal disease, myocardial infarction and stroke. This class of drugs blocks the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II and prevents bradykinin breakdown. However, the lack of specificity of ACEIs leads to the frequent side effects like cough and angio-oedema. Recently developed, specific non-peptide and orally active angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) have become the prime therapeutics as they alone or co-administration with ACE inhibitors can control the renin angiotensin disorders. This review explores recent developments in the design, synthesis, and structural modifications of ACE inhibitors as well as angiotensin receptor blockers.     

Angiotensin II receptor blockers for the treatment of hypertension

The rising incidence of stroke, congestive heart failure (CHF) and end stage renal disease (ESRD) has signalled a need to increase awareness, treatment and control of hypertension. There continues to be a need for effective antihypertensive medications since hypertension is a major precursor to various forms of cardiovascular disease. The renin-angiotensin (AT) aldosterone system (RAAS) is a key component to the development of hypertension and can be one target of drug therapy. Angotensin II (ATII) receptor blockers (ARBs) are the most recent class of agents available to treat hypertension, which work by by inhibiting ATII at the receptor level. Currently, national consensus guidelines recommend that ARBs should be reserved for hypertensive patients who cannot tolerate angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (ACEIs). ARBs, however, are moving to the forefront of therapy with a promising role in the area of renoprotection and CHF. Recent trials such as the The Renoprotective Effect of the Angiotensin-Receptor Antagonist Irbesartan in Patients with Nephropathy Due to Type 2 Diabetes Trial (IDNT), the Effect of Irbesartan on the Development of Diabetic Nephropathy in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (IRMA2), and The Effects of Losartan on Renal and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy (RENAAL) study have demonstrated the renoprotective effects of ARBs in patients with Type 2 diabetes. The Valsartan Heart Failure Trial (Val-HeFT) adds to the growing body of evidence that ARBs may improve morbidity and mortality in CHF patients. As a class, ARBs are well tolerated and have a lower incidence of cough and angioedema compared to ACEIs. This article reviews the differences among the ARBs, existing efficacy data in hypertension, and explores the role of ARBs in CHF and renal disease.     

The short‐term effects of angiotensin II receptor blockers on albuminuria and renal function in Korean patients

Each angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) asserts independent molecular effects. No study has compared the renoprotective potency of different types of ARBs in Korea. This study evaluated the differences among medications for treating albuminuria. Data were obtained from electronic medical records of adult patients who underwent albuminuria test and received treatment with either angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or ARBs between January 2009 and June 2016. Patients' albuminuria and renal function data were observed for three months after treatment initiation. In total, 1475 patients were included. Patients treated with ACEIs had no significant changes in albuminuria (from 127.7 ± 55.1 mg/g to 46.7 ± 18.7 mg/g, P = .127), but those treated with ARBs showed significant improvement (from 491.2 ± 33.2 mg/g to 372.0 ± 28.0 mg/g, P < .001). The ARB group had significantly more patients with normal albuminuria after treatment (from 55.8% to 59.3% for normal albuminuria, from 16.7% to 18.5% for moderately increased albuminuria and from 27.5% to 22.2% for severely increased albuminuria, P = .005), but renal function did not change significantly. Subgroup analysis of ARB types showed that candesartan (from 712.5 ± 71.1 to 489.8 ± 57.8 mg/g, P < .001) and irbesartan (from 522.6 ± 65.7 to 352.6 ± 54.3 mg/g, P < .001) had significant effects. Candesartan improved albuminuria in patients older than 60 years (from 506.9 ± 84.2 to 371.9 ± 70.6 mg/g, P = .004) and irbesartan improved albuminuria in patients with glomerular filtration rate <60 (from 551.6 ± 100.0 to 392.4 ± 76.2, P = .007). Only irbesartan and candesartan could reduce albuminuria, suggesting that all ARBs do not have the same outcome. This indicates the importance of optimizing ARB selection, considering both patient condition and organ‐specific characteristics of medications.     

血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂和血管紧张素受体拮抗剂在慢性心力衰竭治疗中的应用

心力衰竭是多种心脏病的最终死亡原因,阻断肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统(renin angiotensin aldosterone system,RAAS)是减慢心力衰竭病变进展的主要策略。血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂(angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors,ACEI)和血管紧张素受体拮抗剂(angiotensin receptor blockers,ARB)是目前最常用的阻断RAAS的药物。本文对慢性心力衰竭评估,以及ACEI和ARB在慢性心力衰竭治疗中的应用进行综述。     

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in women of childbearing age: risks versus benefits

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are effective and widely used antihypertensive drugs. Exposure to these agents is known to be harmful to the fetus in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. Concerns have also been raised about the risk of congenital malformations if ACEIs or ARBs are taken during the first trimester of pregnancy. The evidence to date, however, is conflicting and observed malformations may be due to confounders such as undiagnosed diabetes or maternal obesity, other antihypertensive medications or the hypertension itself. Nonetheless, in women who become pregnant while taking an ACEI or ARB, the drug should be stopped as soon as possible. In women with chronic kidney disease and proteinuria, it may be appropriate to continue taking an ACEI or ARB until the pregnancy is confirmed because of the significant benefit to their kidney function and the lower fertility rate in these patients.     

ACE inhibitors,angiotensin receptor blockers and direct renin inhibitors in combination: a review of their role after the ONTARGET trial

ABSTRACT

Background: Clinical trials have shown organ-protective effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs); however, cardiovascular mortality and morbidity rates, and decline in renal function remain high. In the ONTARGET trial in patients with hypertension at high cardiovascular risk, ACE inhibitor/ARB combination therapy provided no significant clinical outcome benefits over monotherapy, and was associated with a worse safety and tolerability profile. These results raise the question of whether ACE inhibitor/ARB, direct renin inhibitor (DRI)/ACE inhibitor and DRI/ARB combinations are of clinical value.

Scope: Using PubMed and EMBASE databases, we conducted a systematic review of clinical trials published before June 2008 evaluating dual intervention with ACE inhibitors and ARBs, and compared these with trials of DRI/ACE inhibitor or DRI/ARB combinations.

Findings: A total of 70 studies met the inclusion criteria for this analysis. In patients with hypertension, ACE inhibitor/ARB combinations provided limited additional reductions in blood pressure (BP) over monotherapy. Outcomes benefits were unclear: VALIANT and ONTARGET demonstrated no enhanced outcome benefit of combination therapy over monotherapy; Val-HeFT and CHARM-Added showed reduced morbidity/mortality in patients with heart failure, but at the expense of poorer tolerability. Combination therapy with the DRI aliskiren and an ACE inhibitor or ARB provided significant additional BP reductions over monotherapy in patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension, and reduced surrogate markers of organ damage in patients with heart failure or diabetic nephropathy, with generally similar safety and tolerability to the component monotherapies. No morbidity and mortality data for DRI/ACE inhibitor or DRI/ARB combinations are currently available.

Conclusions: ACE inhibitor/ARB combinations showed equivocal effects on clinical outcomes. DRI/ACE inhibitor and DRI/ARB combinations reduced markers of organ damage, but longer-term trials are required to establish whether more complete renin--angiotensin--aldosterone system control with aliskiren-based therapy translates into improved outcome benefits.     

Therapeutic potential of angiotensin receptor blockers in hypertension

The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system plays a key role in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance. Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) inhibit angiotensin II type 1 receptors and large clinical trials have shown that they are effective in many cardiovascular diseases including hypertension, heart failure, myocardial infarction and diabetic nephropathy. They lower blood pressure effectively, are very well tolerated and can be used as monotherapy or in combination with other drug classes for the treatment of hypertension. ARBs are particularly suitable for hypertensive patients with co-morbities such as diabetes, microalbuminuria, proteinuria, left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, ARBs do not cause persistent dry cough. For patients in whom angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are indicated but not tolerated, an ARB should be considered. Periodic monitoring of renal function and electrolytes is required in patients treated with an ARB.     

Angiotensin receptor blockers in acute myocardial infarction

It has been established from multiple randomised, placebo-controlled trials that angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors reduce the risk of death and major non-fatal cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction, especially when these agents are used for long-term treatment in high-risk patients. Angiotensin receptor blockers represent a theoretically appealing class of drugs for use in combination with or as alternatives to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in such patients. The Valsartan in Acute Myocardial Infarction (VALIANT) trial compared the effects of valsartan, captopril and the combination of both in a population of high-risk patients with evidence of left ventricular dysfunction after acute myocardial infarction. This article discusses this important study and its implications for the clinical management of these high-risk patients.     

肾素-血管紧张素系统抑制剂治疗高血压的研究进展

高血压是引起心血管疾病和导致死亡的最主要原因之一。肾素-血管紧张素系统在高血压的病理生理机制中起着关键作用。肾素-血管紧张素系统抑制剂在治疗高血压中的应用最为广泛。已有许多大型临床研究评价了血管紧张素转化酶抑制剂、血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂和肾素抑制剂单用或联用治疗高血压的作用。本文就近年来肾素-血管紧张素系统抑制剂治疗高血压的研究进展作一综述。     

Laboratory monitoring of potassium and creatinine in ambulatory patients receiving angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers

PURPOSE: Serum potassium and creatinine monitoring is recommended for patients prescribed angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB). Much has been written about hyperkalemia associated with these drugs; little is known about laboratory monitoring patterns. The purpose of this retrospective cohort study was to assess creatinine and potassium monitoring and characteristics associated with monitoring among patients dispensed ACEi or ARB. METHODS: This study was conducted in 10 United States health maintenance organizations. Study patients (n = 52 906) were aged 18 or older with dispensings of ACEi or ARB for at least 1 year. Serum potassium and creatinine monitoring were assessed from administrative data and medical records. RESULTS: More than two-thirds (68.4%) of patients received laboratory monitoring. Likelihood of monitoring increased with age (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 2.10; 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.93, 2.28 [individuals >or= 80 compared to <50 years]), >9 outpatient visits (OR 1.46; 95%CI 1.39, 1.54), hospitalization (OR 1.15; 95%CI 1.06, 1.25), concomitant medications (potassium [OR 2.01; 95%CI 1.84, 2.20], diuretics [OR 1.54; 95%CI 1.47, 1.61], digoxin [OR 1.15; 95%CI 1.01, 1.30]), and comorbidities (diabetes [OR 1.68; 95%CI 1.61, 1.75], heart failure [OR 1.73; 95%CI 1.57, 1.90], chronic kidney disease [OR 2.95; 95%CI 2.48. 3.51]). CONCLUSIONS: Nearly one-third of patients dispensed ACEi or ARB did not undergo laboratory monitoring at least yearly. Though patients at increased risk of hyperkalemia were more likely to be monitored, many remained unmonitored.     

Angiotensin receptor blockers and risk of dementia: cohort study in UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink

Aims

This was a cohort study to evaluate whether individuals exposed to angiotensin receptor blockers have a reduced risk of dementia compared with those exposed to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors.

Methods

The study included new users of angiotensin receptor blockers or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (from 1995 to 2010) from UK primary care practices contributing to the Clinical Research Practice Datalink. The association between exposure to angiotensin receptor blockers and the risk of incident dementia was analysed using a Cox model, adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, diabetes, hypertension, heart failure, statin use, socioeconomic status, alcohol, smoking, number of consultations and calendar year.

Results

A total of 426 089 persons were included in the primary analysis, with 45 541 persons exposed to angiotensin receptor blockers and the remainder to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. The total number of new diagnoses of dementia was 6517. There was weak evidence of a decreased risk of dementia with exposure to angiotensin receptor blockers, with follow-up beginning at 1 year after the start of treatment (adjusted hazard ratio 0.92, 95% confidence interval 0.85–1.00). An analysis restricted to the first 12 months after the index date showed a larger effect on dementia risk (adjusted hazard ratio 0.60, 95% confidence interval 0.50–0.72).

Conclusions

A small reduction in dementia risk was seen with angiotensin receptor blockers in comparison to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. However, the strongest association was seen in early follow-up, suggesting that the inverse association is unlikely to be causal, but instead reflects other important but unmeasured differences between angiotensin receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor users.     

Economic evaluation of four angiotensin II receptor blockers in the treatment of hypertension

Abstract

Objective:

To evaluate the cost effectiveness of achieving JNC 7 blood pressure goals with angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs).     

血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂和他汀类联合应用的前景

血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂(ARBs)和他汀类为临床广泛使用的两类心血管药物。两者能否联合使用或制成复合制剂,将成为心血管药物研究领域一大新的课题。目前,有研究结果表明,两者联合应用存在广泛前景。