Proteasome Dysfunction Mediates Obesity-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Insulin Resistance in the Liver

Chronic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a major contributor to obesity-induced insulin resistance in the liver. However, the molecular link between obesity and ER stress remains to be identified. Proteasomes are important multicatalytic enzyme complexes that degrade misfolded and oxidized proteins. Here, we report that both mouse models of obesity and diabetes and proteasome activator (PA)28-null mice showed 30–40% reduction in proteasome activity and accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteins in the liver. PA28-null mice also showed hepatic steatosis, decreased hepatic insulin signaling, and increased hepatic glucose production. The link between proteasome dysfunction and hepatic insulin resistance involves ER stress leading to hyperactivation of c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase in the liver. Administration of a chemical chaperone, phenylbutyric acid (PBA), partially rescued the phenotypes of PA28-null mice. To confirm part of the results obtained from in vivo experiments, we pretreated rat hepatoma-derived H4IIEC3 cells with bortezomib, a selective inhibitor of the 26S proteasome. Bortezomib causes ER stress and insulin resistance in vitro—responses that are partly blocked by PBA. Taken together, our data suggest that proteasome dysfunction mediates obesity-induced ER stress, leading to insulin resistance in the liver.Obesity is a major cause of insulin resistance and contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes (1). Growing evidence suggests that chronic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the liver is a major contributor to obesity-induced insulin resistance (2–4). However, the molecular mechanisms linking obesity and ER stress are not fully understood.We previously identified metabolic pathways that are significantly altered by obesity in the livers of people with type 2 diabetes by analyzing comprehensive gene expression profiles using DNA chips (5). We found that genes involved in ubiquitin-proteasome pathways were coordinately upregulated in obese individuals. Proteasomes play fundamental roles in processes that are essential for cell viability (6).Eukaryotic cells contain several types of proteasomes. Core 20S proteasomes (20S) have binding sites for the regulatory particles proteasome activator (PA)700 and PA28 (7). PA700–20S-PA700 complexes are known as 26S proteasomes and are ATP-dependent machines that degrade cell proteins (7). PA28 is found in both previously described PA28–20S-PA28 complexes and PA700–20S-PA28 complexes, which also contain PA700 (8). The PA28 family comprises three members: α, β, and γ. PA28α encoded by the PSME1 gene and PA28β encoded by the PSME2 gene form a heteropolymer, which is mainly located in the cytoplasm, whereas PA28γ encoded by the PSME3 gene forms a homopolymer that predominantly occurs in the nucleus (9). The association of the PA28 with the 20S may play a role in antigen processing by modulating peptide cleavage in the 20S (10,11), but it appears that the PA28 may play a greater role in intracellular protein degradation than in antigen processing (12). Recently, it was reported that PA28α overexpression enhances ubiquitin-proteasome system–mediated degradation of abnormal proteins (13).It has been reported that fatty acids, insulin (14), and oxidative stress (15) inhibit proteasome activity in cultured hepatocellular carcinoma (Hep)G2 cells. However, it remains to be determined whether liver proteasome function is dysregulated in obesity and type 2 diabetes.Based on these findings, we hypothesized that proteasome dysregulation in the liver is involved in the development of hepatic insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes. To test this hypothesis, we generated PA28α-PA28β-PA28γ triple-knockout (PA28 KO) mice as a model of impaired proteasome function and investigated their metabolic phenotypes.     

Overexpression of the focal adhesion kinase (p125FAK) in the vascular smooth muscle cells of intimal hyperplasia

PURPOSE: The migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are important events in the development of intimal hyperplasia (IH). The focal adhesion kinase (FAK) gene encodes a protein tyrosine kinase (p125FAK) involved in signal transduction pathways used in cell adhesion, motility, and proliferation. Because alterations in these cellular processes are thought to occur in VSMCs during IH, we studied FAK expression in healthy arteries and veins in comparison with that in pathologic vessels containing IH. METHODS: To determine p125FAK expression at the cellular level, we developed a monoclonal antibody that specifically detected FAK in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections (5 microm) and analyzed the levels of FAK expression in human arteries and veins. Specificity of monoclonal antibody 4.47 was demonstrated by means of immunofluorescence microscopy showing FAK-specific staining at focal adhesions of healthy human vascular smooth muscle cells (AoSMCs). By using immunohistochemistry techniques, we analyzed the expression of p125FAK in 25 adult human vascular tissue samples from individual patients, which contained a histologically confirmed healthy artery, vein, or IH. RESULTS: FAK expression in healthy and pathologic human vascular tissue was localized predominantly within VSMC cytoplasm. In healthy human artery and vein, borderline FAK expression was detected in the media of seven of 17 vessels and undetectable in the remainder of specimens. However, in vessels containing IH, FAK was overexpressed in the pathologic VSMC populations at moderate-to-strong levels in eight of eight specimens. The levels of FAK expression were directly correlated with structures containing IH, and the results of FAK staining intensity and the percentage of positive cells in these samples were significantly increased compared with normal vascular tissue levels (P <.05, Student t test). CONCLUSION: These results provide the first evidence that FAK is overexpressed in VSMCs involved in IH and suggest that FAK upregulation may be part of a mechanism for migration and proliferation of VSMCs during this process. Furthermore, the dramatic upregulation of FAK in IH and the relative lack of expression in healthy vessels suggest that FAK may be a rational target for controlling IH.     

Structural and functional properties of proteasomes purified from the human kidney

BACKGROUND: Proteasomes are 'proteolytic machineries' implicated in many cellular functions, including protein turnover, inflammatory response and immunosurveillance. They exist in various forms sharing the same catalytic core - the 20S proteasome. This core consists of 28 subunits codified by 14 different genes, 3 of which - beta 1, beta 2 and beta 5 - are catalytically active and show peptidyl-glutamyl peptide hydrolyzing (PGPH), trypsin-like and chymo-trypsin-like activities, respectively. Under IFN- delta and TNF- alfa stimuli, the 3 active constitutive subunits are replaced by the corresponding ones - i.e., LMP2, MECL-1, LMP7 - known as inducible subunits, thus resulting in the constitution of the 'immunoproteasome' that is specifically implicated in MHC class I-presented peptide generation. This process is enhanced when the proteasome is associated with the polymeric protein 11S regulator/PA28 made up of 4 alfa and 3 beta subunits. METHODS: The 20S proteasome was purified from post mortem specimens of human kidney cortex by chromatographic and ultracentrifugation techniques. It was then characterized on the basis of (i) multicatalytic activity evaluated using specific fluorogenic peptides, (ii) electrophoretic mobility on non-denaturating polyacrylamide gels followed by in-gel visualization by fluorogenic peptide overlaying and Coomassie blue staining and (iii) subunit composition as ascertained by SDS-PAGE and 2-dimensional electrophoresis followed by silver staining or Western immunoblotting using specific antibodies against the proteasome subunits. The 20S proteasome was also studied for its association with the 11S regulator by Western immunoblotting using an antibody to the regulator alfa subuniT. RESULTS: T he purified proteasome was shown to have PGPH, trypsin-like and chymotrypsin-like activities. Furthermore, it incorporated the inducible subunits and was associated with the 11S regulator. CONCLUSIONS:The features we observed make renal cells susceptible to an over-expression of inflammatory response to immunological challenges.     

Proteasome inhibitors and their combination with antiandrogens: effects on apoptosis, cellular proliferation and viability of prostatic adenocarcinoma cell cultures

The 26S proteasome is a ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic system that has been implicated in the regulation of cell cycle progression and apoptosis. We investigated the effects of the proteasome inhibitors MG115 and PSI alone or in combination with different concentrations of the antiandrogen hydroxyflutamide on the cellular proliferation, apoptosis and viability of 10 prostatic adenocarcinoma cell cultures. Treatment with both proteasome inhibitors resulted in apoptosis induction, whereas the combinations with hydroxyflutamide generally did not, with the exception of MG115 combined with 10(-7) M hydroxyflutamide. MG115 caused a significant decrease in cellular proliferation, as did the combinations of both proteasome inhibitors with hydroxyflutamide, whereas hydroxyflutamide alone was only effective at a concentration of 10(-5) M. Cellular viability was significantly reduced when both proteasome inhibitors were combined with 10(-5) M hydroxyflutamide. Although the results varied among different cell lines, we conclude that proteasome inhibitors are able to induce apoptosis and reduce cellular proliferation. They might prove effective as antineoplastic substances in prostatic adenocarcinoma alone or in combination with antiandrogens.     

Hyperglycemia Impairs Proteasome Function by Methylglyoxal

OBJECTIVE

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is the main degradation machinery for intracellularly altered proteins. Hyperglycemia has been shown to increase intracellular levels of the reactive dicarbonyl methylglyoxal (MGO) in cells damaged by diabetes, resulting in modification of proteins and alterations of their function. In this study, the influence of MGO-derived advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation on the activity of the proteasome was investigated in vitro and in vivo.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

MGO-derived AGE modification of proteasome subunits was analyzed by mass spectrometry, immunoprecipitation, and Western blots. Proteasome activity was analyzed using proteasome-specific fluorogenic substrates. Experimental models included bovine retinal endothelial cells, diabetic Ins2^Akita mice, glyoxalase 1 (GLO1) knockdown mice, and streptozotocin (STZ)-injected diabetic mice.

RESULTS

In vitro incubation with MGO caused adduct formation on several 20S proteasomal subunit proteins. In cultured endothelial cells, the expression level of the catalytic 20S proteasome subunit was not altered but proteasomal chymotrypsin-like activity was significantly reduced. In contrast, levels of regulatory 19S proteasomal proteins were decreased. In diabetic Ins2^Akita, STZ diabetic, and nondiabetic and diabetic G101 knockdown mice, chymotrypsin-like activity was also reduced and MGO modification of the 20S-β2 subunit was increased.

CONCLUSIONS

Hyperglycemia-induced formation of MGO covalently modifies the 20S proteasome, decreasing its activity in the diabetic kidney and reducing the polyubiquitin receptor 19S-S5a. The results indicate a new link between hyperglycemia and impairment of cell functions.Chronic hyperglycemia in diabetic patients is characterized by increased intracellular glucose concentration in cells damaged by diabetes complications, such as endothelial cells. Intracellular hyperglycemia activates four major pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetes complications: the hexosamine and polyol pathways, protein kinase C isoforms, and formation of the reactive carbonyl compounds methylglyoxal (MGO) and glyoxal (1). These reactive carbonyl compounds form covalent adducts with particular lysine and arginine residues in proteins, altering their function (2,3). MGO is the major source of intracellular advanced glycation end products (AGEs) (4). MGO is metabolized by glyoxalase (GLO)1 and -2 to the end product d-lactate. This system efficiently detoxifies MGO and its two-carbon analog glyoxal. GLO1 deficiency is associated with high levels of intracellular AGE (5). MGO-derived AGEs, which are particularly abundant in vascular tissue, are thought to contribute to the observed vasculopathies in late complications of diabetes. In particular, these pathological conditions are associated with chronic inflammation, atherosclerosis, and diabetic nephropathy (6).Several studies have reported that intracellular protein glycation by MGO caused pathological changes in particular proteins (7–10). However, the possibility that MGO modifies protein subunits of the proteasome has not yet been examined. The ubiquitin-proteasome system is responsible for the protein quality control in a given cell in general through degradation or removal of misfolded or damaged proteins that would adversely affect cell function (11,12). Damaged or modified intracellular proteins become targeted for proteolysis via Lys-48–connected polyubiquitin chains followed by degradation in the 26S proteasome. The 26S proteasome itself is comprised of two main multiprotein components: the 20S core proteasome containing the proteolytic activities and the 19S regulatory complex. The 19S regulator complex binds ubiquitinated proteins via the ubiquitin-interacting motifs of the S5a-subunit (Rpn10), unfolds them, and directs them into the 20S core proteasome for subsequent degradation (13–15). The 20S core complex contains three proteolytic activities: a trypsin-, a chymotrypsin- and a peptidyl-glutamyl (caspase)–like activity. As a protection mechanism against damaged and aggregated proteins, the proteasome rapidly eliminates oxidized, damaged proteins. Oxidative stress is known to upregulate the ubiquitin-proteasome machinery (16,17).We hypothesized that MGO induced by chronic hyperglycemia could modify the proteasome and thereby impair proteasome function. Thus, the influence of MGO modification on proteasome function was studied in vascular endothelial cells, diabetic Ins2^Akita mice, streptozotocin (STZ)-injected diabetic mice, nondiabetic GLO1-knockdown mice, and STZ diabetic/GLO1-knockdown mice. Our results indicate that hyperglycemia-induced MGO formation causes covalent modification of the proteasome, which results in decreased chymotrypsin-like proteasome activity and reduced levels of the polyubiquitin receptor 19S-S5a.     

Comparative assessment of intimal hyperplasia development after 14 days in two different experimental settings: tissue culture versus ex vivo continuous perfusion of human saphenous vein

BACKGROUND: Intimal hyperplasia (IH) is a vascular remodeling process which often leads to failure of arterial bypass or hemodialysis access. Experimental and clinical work have provided insight in IH development; however, further studies under precise controlled conditions are required to improve therapeutic strategies to inhibit IH development. Ex vivo perfusion of human vessel segments under standardized hemodynamic conditions may provide an adequate experimental approach for this purpose. Therefore, chronically perfused venous segments were studied and compared to traditional static culture procedures with regard to functional and histomorphologic characteristics as well as gene expression. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Static vein culture allowing high tissue viability was performed as previously described. Ex vivo vein support system (EVVSS) was performed using a vein support system consisting of an incubator with a perfusion chamber and a pump. EVVSS allows vessel perfusion under continuous flow while maintaining controlled hemodynamic conditions. Each human saphenous vein was divided in two parts, one cultured in a Pyrex dish and the other part perfused in EVVSS for 14days. Testing of vasomotion, histomorphometry, expression of CD 31, Factor VIII, MIB 1, alpha-actin, and PAI-l were determined before and after 14days of either experimental conditions. RESULTS: Human venous segments cultured under traditional or perfused conditions exhibited similar IH after 14 days as shown by histomorphometry. Smooth-muscle cell (SMC) was preserved after chronic perfusion. Although integrity of both endothelial and smooth-muscle cells appears to be maintained in both culture conditions as confirmed by CD31, factor VIII, and alpha-actin expression, a few smooth-muscle cells in the media stained positive for factor VIII. Cell-proliferation marker MIB-1 was also detected in the two settings and PAI-1 mRNA expression and activity increased significantly after 14 days of culture and perfusion. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates the feasibility to chronically perfuse human vessels under sterile conditions with preservation of cellular integrity and vascular contractility. To gain insights into the mechanisms leading to IH, it will now be possible to study vascular remodeling not only under static conditions but also in hemodynamic environment mimicking as closely as possible the flow conditions encountered in reconstructive vascular surgery.     

蛋白酶体抑制剂MG-132对胃癌细胞株作用的实验研究

目的:探讨蛋白酶体抑制剂MG-132阻断泛素-蛋白酶体通路(ubiquitin-proteasome pathway,UPP)对体外胃癌细胞增殖的抑制作用及其相关机制。方法:将不同浓度的MG-132加入胃癌细胞株SGC-7901中,观察细胞形态变化,并应用MTT法测定细胞抑制效应,流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡,免疫组化法检测P27kip1的表达。结果:MG-132对胃癌细胞增殖具有显著的抑制作用,瑞氏染色显微镜观察MG-132作用于胃癌细胞后,可见细胞出现细胞质、核仁消失,染色质固缩、边缘化,核膜裂解、染色质分割及大量凋亡小体。5.0μmol/L的MG-132作用24、48h后的凋亡率分别为(16.7±5.1)%和(72.8±16.4)%。免疫组化显示,胃癌细胞在5.0μmol/L的MG-132作用48h后明显表达P27kip-1。结论:MG-132能显著抑制胃癌细胞的增殖,诱导其凋亡。其机制可能为通过上调抑癌蛋白P27kip-1水平而起到抗肿瘤作用。     

Porcine complement regulators protect aortic smooth muscle cells poorly against human complement-induced lysis and proliferation: consequences for xenotransplantation

BACKGROUND: Accelerated atherosclerosis after transplantation has been observed and is characterized by smooth muscle cell proliferation in the graft. Porcine cells are frequently used in models of atherosclerosis and porcine organs are considered for use in transplantation. Complement (C) activation is known to play a major role in rejection of xenografts and is also considered to play a role in the development of atherosclerosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression and function of membrane bound regulators of complement (CReg) on porcine aortic smooth muscle cells (PASMC). METHODS: The PASMC were assessed for expression of CReg and susceptibility to lysis by human C by flow-cytometry. The effect of various cytokines on CReg expression and C-susceptibility was investigated. The ability of human C to induce cell proliferation was assessed using the Alamar blue assay. RESULTS: The PASMC only express the CReg membrane cofactor protein (MCP) and CD59 on their cell surface. MCP expression was increased by interleukin (IL)-4. In contrast to porcine aortic endothelial cells (PAEC), PASMC were found to be surprisingly sensitive to C-mediated lysis, mainly due to a low level of expression of CD59. Human C-induced proliferation of PASMC, which was dependent on complete membrane attack complex (MAC) formation. CONCLUSIONS: Endogenously expressed CReg on PASMC poorly protect these cells to human C. Human C can induce proliferation of PASMC. In order to prevent accelerated atherosclerosis in porcine xenografts, increased levels of CReg not only have to be obtained on the endothelial cells but also on the smooth muscle cells.     

Oxidized LDL induces proliferation and hypertrophy in human umbilical vein endothelial cells via regulation of p27Kip1 expression: role of RhoA

Oxidized LDL (OxLDL) induces proliferation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The influence of OxLDL on the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27(Kip1), on the activity of the small GTPase RhoA as a known regulator of p27(Kip1), and on resulting cell proliferation and hypertrophy was studied. HUVEC were stimulated with OxLDL (1 to 50 mug/ml). Proliferation was quantified by (3)H-thymidine incorporation, colorimetric 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2h-tetrazolium bromide assay, and cell count and was compared with proliferation of HUVEC that were transfected with dominant negative RhoA or treated with the Rho-kinase inhibitor Y27632. Hypertrophy was quantified by (3)H-leucine incorporation and by planimetry. p27(Kip1) expression was determined by Western blot analysis. p27(Kip1) was downregulated by transient transfection with antisense oligonucleotides. Low concentrations of OxLDL induced proliferation of HUVEC, paralleled by a persistent decrease of p27(Kip1) expression. With the use of antisense oligonucleotides, further downregulation of p27(Kip1) expression enhanced the OxLDL-induced proliferative response. High concentrations of OxLDL resulted in cellular hypertrophy and caused a delayed increase in p27(Kip1) expression after initial downregulation. Concomitant, OxLDL caused a significant activation of the small GTPase RhoA. In cells that were transfected with dominant negative RhoA, the effect of OxLDL on p27(Kip1) expression and on cellular proliferation was abolished. HUVEC that were preincubated with the Rho-kinase inhibitor Y27632 also showed a significantly decreased proliferative response to OxLDL stimulation. In summary, OxLDL has a dual effect on cell-cycle progression via regulation of p27(Kip1) expression, resulting in cellular proliferation and hypertrophy, involving activation of RhoA. OxLDL may importantly contribute to vascular hyperplasia in atherosclerosis and other diseases associated with increased levels of OxLDL.     

Supplemental oxygen controls cellular proliferation and anastomotic intimal hyperplasia at a vascular graft-to-artery anastomosis in the rabbit

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether the administration of 40% supplemental oxygen (O ( 2) ) will decrease cellular proliferation and intimal hyperplasia (IH) at a prosthetic vascular graft (PVG)-to-artery anastomosis. METHODS: Twenty New Zealand white rabbits underwent placement of a 3-mm polytetrafluoroethylene graft in their infrarenal aorta. Four groups of five rabbits were placed either in a normoxic (21%) environment or in a 40% supplemental O ( 2) environment for 7 or 42 days. Twenty-four hours before the rabbits were humanely killed for aortic graft harvest, BrDU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine) was injected into the rabbits intraperitoneally. Image analysis (Bioquant) morphometrics were used to measure cells with BrDU staining and intimal areas at the distal anastomosis. Cellular proliferation is defined as positively staining BrDU cells divided by all cells in the artery wall. IH is reported as a ratio between the intimal area and the medial area to standardize the varying aortic size and degree of aortic fixation among rabbits. The Student t test was used to compare cellular proliferation and IH between control and O ( 2) -treated rabbits. RESULTS: Cellular proliferation in the intima at 7 days was significantly reduced in the O ( 2) -treated animals (1.7% +/- 1%) versus the control animals (28.6% +/- 3%) ( P =.0001). The cellular proliferation in the intima at 42 days returned to preoperative levels in the O ( 2) -treated group (0.15%) and in the control group (0.11%) ( P = not significant). IH at 7 days was minimal, and no difference between the O ( 2) -treated group (0.017 +/-.006) and the control group (0.009 +/-.03) ( P = not significant) was found. IH was significantly reduced at 42 days in the O ( 2) -treated animals (0.031 +/-.012) when compared with the control animals (0.193 +/-.043) ( P =.006). CONCLUSIONS: Supplemental O ( 2) (40%) significantly reduces cellular proliferation and IH at the distal anastomosis of a PVG-to-artery anastomosis in the rabbit model.     

重组pcDNA3.1-hBMP-2转染人骨髓基质干细胞和对其增殖及血管内皮生长因子表达的影响

目的构建人骨形成蛋白-2(hBMP-2)真核表达载体pcDNA3.1-hBMP-2,转染人骨髓基质干细胞(MSCs),探讨基因转染对其增殖和血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)表达的影响. 方法利用重组DNA和基因克隆技术构建重组载体pcDNA3.1-hBMP-2;细胞培养和基因转染技术体外转染人MSCs;免疫细胞化学、原位杂交和蛋白印迹法检测细胞BMP-2的表达;通过流式细胞仪和VEGF探针原位杂交分析其对细胞增殖和VEGF表达的影响. 结果转染后细胞在mRNA水平和蛋白质水平均表达BMP-2;转染后S期细胞比例增多,提示细胞DNA的合成增加;BMP-2基因转染上调细胞VEGF的表达. 结论在脂质体介导下,pcDNA3.1-hBMP-2转染MSCs获得成功.基因转染后能促进细胞增殖并将通过使VEGF的表达增加促进血管再生,为进一步骨缺损的基因治疗及构建组织工程骨奠定了实验基础.     

EGF receptor activity modulates apoptosis induced by inhibition of the proteasome of vascular smooth muscle cells

The observation that intracellular protein turnover rates participate directly in cell viability led to the development and clinical use of potent proteasome inhibitors. This study determined that the mechanism of apoptosis that is induced by inhibition of the proteasome of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) was related to the intracellular accumulation of Bad, a BH3-only member of the Bcl-2 family of apoptosis regulators. Experiments confirmed that the apoptotic process was mitochondria- and caspase-dependent. Ubiquitination and accumulation of Bad in VSMC followed inhibition of the proteasome, and depletion of Bad using RNA interference prevented apoptosis that was induced by proteasome inhibition with PS-341. EGF receptor (EGFR) activation produced posttranslational modifications of Bad, providing the pro-survival signals that prevented apoptosis of smooth muscle cells during proteasome inhibition. Antagonists of the EGFR potentiated the apoptotic rate. In summary, the activities of the EGFR and the proteasome focused on Bad and the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and were involved integrally in determining viability of VSMC. These findings might prove useful in the management of diseases in which proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells plays a central role.     

Carbamylated low-density lipoprotein induces proliferation and increases adhesion molecule expression of human coronary artery smooth muscle cells

Aim: Presence of accelerated atherosclerosis in dialysis patients cannot be entirely explained by conventional risk factors. Exposure to urea, which is elevated in patients with kidney disease, leads to the carbamylation of proteins. We investigated the effects of carbamylated low-density lipoprotein (cLDL) on human coronary artery vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Methods: Native LDL (nLDL) was carbamylated with potassium cyanate. Cells were incubated with different concentrations of cLDL carbamylated at different time points. Cytotoxicity, apoptosis, proliferation (bromodeoxyuridine incorporation), expression of adhesion molecules and extracellular matrix protein synthesis were studied. Results: Carbamylated low-density lipoprotein exposure leads to morphological alterations and presence of cellular debris. Neither nLDL nor cLDL caused apoptosis. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release was not different between groups. Carbamylated low-density lipoprotein led to a striking proliferation in VSMC compared to nLDL. Carbamylated low-density lipoprotein significantly increased intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression compared to the control. The effects of cLDL on proliferation and adhesion molecule expression were dose-dependent and correlated with the degree of low-density lipoprotein carbamylation. cLDL had no effect on extracellular matrix protein synthesis. Conclusion: The results support the hypothesis that cLDL may contribute to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in uraemic patients.     

Association of interleukin-8 and plasminogen activator system in the progression of colorectal cancer

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of Interleukin-8 (IL-8) with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and plasminogen activator system (PA system) in the progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). In eighty-seven patients with CRC, the levels of IL-8, and VEGF as representative angiogenic factors and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), uPA receptor (uPAR), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and PAI-2 as representative invasive factors were quantitatively assayed in tumor and adjacent normal tissues. The levels of IL-8, VEGF, and PA system factors in tumor tissues were all significantly higher than those in normal tissues. The IL-8 level was significantly associated with tumor size, depth of infiltration, Dukes stage, and liver metastasis, and also significantly correlated with the levels of VEGF, uPAR, uPA, and PAI-1. The VEGF level was significantly associated with tumor size, vascular involvement. The levels of uPAR and PAI-1 were significantly associated with tumor size and depth of infiltration, and the uPAR level was associated with liver metastasis. The VEGF level was significantly correlated with the levels of uPAR and PAI-1. These results reveal that IL-8, VEGF, and PA system factors are contributed to tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis in CRC. Univariate analysis revealed that high levels of IL-8, VEGF, and uPAR were significantly associated with a shorter overall survival time; however, multivariate analysis identified only liver metastasis as an independent prognostic factor. In conclusion, IL-8 is responsible to tumor progression and liver metastasis of CRC, and the activation of PAS induced by IL-8 as well as VEGF may play an important role in the progression of CRC.     

IL-8-stimulated expression of urokinase-type plasminogen activator in human skin and human epidermal cells

Extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling is essential for normal development and tissue repair. Although many roles for extracellular proteinases in the breakdown of ECM have been established, the regulations of these proteinases in human tissue are not fully understood. Inflammatory cytokines have been implicated in the regulation of several matrix metalloproteinases. To determine whether these mediators have a similar effect on fibrinolysis and the remodeling of the fibrin provisional matrix, we examined the role of cytokines on the regulation of urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) and tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) in human skin. In this report, we show that interleukin-8 (IL-8), but not other cytokines tested, is a potent inducer of the 38-kDa uPA in organ-cultured human skin. In addition, the uPA inhibitor, PAI-1, was not affected by IL-8. When primary epidermal human keratinocytes were treated with IL-8, 55-kDa pro-uPA was significantly induced in the conditioned medium. The mRNA expression of uPA in the keratinocytes was found to be constitutively elevated and was not affected by IL-8. To support such a notion, activation of the 5'-flanking promoter of the human uPA gene was measured using the CAT reporter assay. Consistent with the results of mRNA measurement, the promoter is constitutively active in keratinocytes and is not affected by IL-8. In contrast, the promoter construct is neither active in the dermal fibroblasts nor stimulated by the cytokine. This differential transactivation of uPA gene in these cells indicates that keratinocyte-specific factors may govern the basal expression of the gene. These results indicate a complex regulation of uPA expression in epidermal cells.     

NS-398 inhibits tumor growth and liver metastasis of colon cancer through induction of apoptosis and suppression of the plasminogen activation system in a mouse model

BACKGROUND: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is overexpressed in colon cancers. The plasminogen activation (PA) system relates to cancer invasion and metastasis through the degradation of the extracellular matrix. COX-2 also relates to degradation of the extracellular matrix, but the relationship between COX-2 and the plasminogen activator system is unclear. STUDY DESIGN: In vivo: Colon 38 (G0) primary and (G5) metastatic cell lines were implanted in C57BL/6 mice treated with or without COX-2 inhibitor (NS-398). Animal survival and tumor growth were measured. On day 19, tumors were excised and tumor cell apoptosis measured. For metastasis, G5 cells were injected into the spleen, and, after 23 days, liver metastasis was determined. In vitro: G0 or G5 cells were treated with NS-398. Supernatant prostaglandin E2 and mRNA expressions of COX-2, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), urokinase-type plasminogen activator (u-PA), u-PA receptor, plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1), and PAI-2 were measured. Tumor cell proliferation was also determined. RESULTS: In vivo: Mean survival of NS-398-treated animals was higher than controls for both G5 and G0 (G5: p < 0.003, G0: p < 0.02). G5 tumors grew faster than G0 tumors (p < 0.001) and NS-398 significantly inhibited tumor growth (p < 0.001), induced tumor cell apoptosis (p < 0.001), and significantly reduced metastasis (p < 0.003) in G5 animals. In vitro: PGE(2) production was higher in G5 than G0 cells (p < 0.001); NS-398 significantly reduced prostaglandin E(2) levels in G5 cells (p < 0.001). mRNA expression of COX-2, vascular endothelial growth factor, and u-PA receptor was higher in G5 than G0 cells, and NS-398 significantly inhibited u-PA mRNA expression in G5 cells. NS-398 significantly reduced proliferation in G5 cells (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: COX-2 inhibition significantly decreases tumor growth in this model by inducing apoptosis and blocking u-PA production in G5 colon cancer cells, which is associated with significant inhibition of liver metastases.     

血管内皮细胞生长因子促进肝内胆管细胞癌生长的机制研究

目的探究血管内皮细胞生长因子（VEGF）及其受体对肝内胆管细胞癌（ICC）细胞生长调控的作用机制。 方法Western blotting检测VEGF在12例ICC患者肿瘤组织和癌旁正常组织中的表达水平。采用外源性重组人源VEGF（rhVEGF）处理ICC细胞株Huh28后,采用细胞计数检测细胞生长情况,5-溴脱氧尿嘧啶核苷（BrdU）实验检测细胞增殖,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡。Western blotting检测rhVEGF处理后Huh28细胞中VEGF受体VEGFR1及VEGFR2的表达情况。使用特异性抗体分别阻断VEGFR1及VEGFR2,通过ELISA法检测细胞的凋亡水平。采用慢病毒shRNA构建稳定敲低VEGFR2的ICC细胞株Huh28-shVEGFR2（实验组）和对照细胞株Huh28-shNC（对照组）。采用Huh28-shVEGFR2及Huh28-shNC细胞在10只裸鼠中构建皮下瘤模型,观察肿瘤的生长情况。 结果VEGF在ICC肿瘤组织中蛋白表达水平上调,显著高于癌旁正常组织（P<0.01）。外源性rhVEGF可以促进Huh28细胞生长,抑制细胞凋亡,而对细胞增殖能力无明显影响。rhVEGF处理后Huh28细胞中磷酸化的VEGFR1及VEGFR2表达水平升高（P<0.05）。VEGFR2抗体可以显著逆转rhVEGF介导的抗凋亡作用（P<0.05）,而VEGFR1抗体则无明显效果。皮下瘤模型结果显示,与对照组相比,肿瘤生长在实验组中受到显著抑制,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。 结论VEGF是通过VEGFR2依赖的信号通路抑制ICC细胞凋亡,从而促进ICC细胞生长。