Dietary status of trained female cyclists

Dietary status was evaluated in eight highly trained female cyclists. Each cyclist kept a 3-day weighed food record. Diets were analyzed for nutrient content using a computerized software package. Blood was also obtained and evaluated for hemoglobin, hematocrit, and albumin. For an athletic group, the cyclists' diets were found to be low in energy (85% RDA) and carbohydrate (4.4 gm/kg body weight per day). Mean daily dietary intakes were well below the RDAs for folacin (76% RDA), magnesium (81%), iron (59%), and zinc (48%). In addition, more than one-third of the cyclists failed to consume 67% of the RDA for the following micronutrients: pyridoxine, folacin, cobalamin, vitamin E, magnesium, iron, and zinc. Hemoglobin (135 gm/L), hematocrit (0.39), and albumin (45 gm/L) values were all normal, although most hemoglobin values were in the lower 50% of normal range. Foods such as meats, poultry, fish, beans, peas, and nuts were low or absent from the diets of most athletes. Dietary quality in this group of female cyclists could have been greatly improved with the addition of more of those foods. These athletes could benefit from nutrition education and diet counseling.     

Nutritional survey of highly trained women runners

Mean daily intakes from 3-day dietary records for calories, energy-providing nutrients, and selected minerals were calculated for 51 highly trained women runners. Selected blood constituents relating to mineral status were also measured. Intakes of calcium, magnesium, iron, and copper were above the amounts recommended by the National Research Council whereas zinc intake was below the recommended dietary allowances (RDA). Caloric intakes, although above the RDA for sedentary women, appeared low for women running 10 miles/day. Concentrations of serum ferritin and plasma zinc were indicative of marginal iron and zinc status in many of the women. Whether the nutrient content of the diets consumed by these women is adequate relative to energy output or whether training lowers nutrient requirements by enhancing metabolic efficiency will require further investigation.     

Diet intervention methods to reduce fat intake: nutrient and food group composition of self-selected low-fat diets

A multicentered pilot study was conducted to test an intervention protocol designed to reduce fat intake to 15% of energy intake. Eligible subjects were postmenopausal women with stage II breast cancer whose baseline fat intake was more than 30% of energy intake. The low-fat diet intervention protocol consisted of bi-weekly individual counseling sessions with emphasis on substitution of lower-fat foods for high-fat foods and maintenance of nutritional adequacy. Nutrient intakes were calculated from 4-day food records collected at baseline and after 3 months of diet intervention. Mean daily fat intake for the 17 patients on the low-fat diet dropped significantly from 38.4 +/- 4.3% of energy intake at baseline to 22.8 +/- 7.8% at 3 months (p less than .001). A 25% reduction in mean energy intake, from 1,840 +/- 419 kcal at baseline to 1,365 +/- 291 kcal at 3 months, was accompanied by significant increases in protein and carbohydrate as percent of energy intake. A mean weight loss of 2.8 kg and a 7.7% reduction in serum cholesterol were observed; both changes were significant at the p less than .01 level. Absolute intakes of zinc and magnesium were significantly reduced. However, mean intake on the low-fat diet for 14 vitamins and minerals, including zinc and magnesium, exceeded two-thirds of the 1989 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). When expressed as nutrient density (i.e., amount of nutrient per 1,000 kcal), increases were observed for all micronutrients. These results support the hypothesis that a nutritionally adequate low-fat diet can be successfully implemented in a highly motivated, free-living population.     

Gender differences in food consumption pattern and nutrient intake of indian pre-school children (3-4 years) in Haryana State

The consumption of different foodstuffs by Indian pre-school children (3 to 4 years) was recorded by using 24-hour recall method for three consecutive days. Adequacy of foods was ascertained by comparing the mean intake per day with Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA). The daily mean intake of all foodstuffs viz. cereals, pulses, green leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, other vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, milk and milk products and sugar and jaggery was lower than their respective RDAs among preschoolers except roots and tubers which were consumed in adequate amount by boys of the same age group. The intake of protein, fat, calcium, thiamine, folic acid and vitamin B12 was equal or more than their adequate amount as recommended by Indian Council of Medical Research. On the other hand, intake of energy, beta-carotene, riboflavin and niacin was marginally adequate as per their respective RDAs. The most limiting nutrients in their daily diets were iron and vitamin C.     

Pregnant adolescent and adult women have similarly low intakes of selected nutrients

OBJECTIVE: To examine the dietary intake of pregnant adolescents during the second and third trimester of pregnancy, and to compare their nutrient intake with that of pregnant adults. DESIGN: Two 7-day food records (14 days) from subjects participating in a larger randomized clinical calcium trial: the first at 19 to 21 weeks and the second between 29 and 31 weeks gestation. Intake of energy and selected nutrients were calculated and compared with dietary standards. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Fifty-nine pregnant adolescents and 97 pregnant adults recruited from prenatal clinics at a metropolitan university hospital. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Two sample t tests, equality of variances, and repeated measures (analysis of variance). RESULTS: There was no difference in mean nutrient intakes between the second and third trimesters. Using two 7-day food records, we found mean intakes for energy, iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, folate, and vitamins D and E to be below recommended standards in both groups. Other nutrients examined met or exceeded reference values. Total daily intakes for energy and 11 nutrients were significantly higher in the adolescent compared to the adult diets (P < .05). These differences were not evident when nutrient values were corrected for energy, indicating that increased energy intake in the teen-aged population was contributed by nutrient-dense foods. APPLICATIONS: This study indicates the need for continued dietary monitoring of pregnant adolescents and pregnant adults, including nutrition guidance that stresses food sources of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, fiber, folate, and vitamins D and E, the nutrients found deficient in their diets.     

A comparison of low-carbohydrate vs. high-carbohydrate diets: energy restriction,nutrient quality and correlation to body mass index

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate free-living adults' diets that ranged from very low to high amounts of carbohydrate for their energy content, nutritional quality and correlation to Body Mass Index. METHODS: Adults ages 19 years and older, who had complete dietary intake data on day-1 of the USDA's 1994 to 1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII 1994-1996), were divided into four groups--very low, low, moderate and high carbohydrate--based on the percent total energy from carbohydrate. Mean energy, nutrient, food intakes and Body Mass Index values were compared among the groups. SUDAAN software package was used for the data analysis and pair-wise mean comparisons (p < 0.05). RESULTS: The high-carbohydrate diet was lower in energy and energy density (number of kilocalories per gram of total amount of food consumed) than the other three diets. Macronutrient composition varied significantly among all the four groups. Nutrient density (amount of nutrient per 1,000 kilocalories of energy consumed) of vitamin A, carotene, vitamin C, folate, calcium, magnesium and iron increased and that of vitamin B12 and zinc decreased with an increase in the percent total energy from carbohydrate. The high-carbohydrate group ate more of low-fat foods, grain products and fruits. This group also had the lowest sodium intake. Adults eating a high-carbohydrate diet are more likely to have Body Mass Index values below 25. CONCLUSION: A study of diets of free-living adults in the U.S. showed that diets high in carbohydrate were both energy restrictive and nutritious and may be adopted for successful weight management.     

Institutionalized elderly women have lower food intake than do those living more independently (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System).

The habitual intake of energy and nutrients (assessed through dietary history) among elderly women (aged 65 and over) living in a nursing home (n = 54), elderly women living in service flats and receiving their dinners from the nursing home kitchen (n = 29), and elderly women living independently (n = 52) was evaluated within the framework of the Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System. Intake of energy and nutrients was lowest among women in the nursing home and highest among those living independently. Almost all differences in absolute intake found were significant, both unadjusted and adjusted for age. In the nursing home the intake of energy and nutrients was lower at higher age. In qualitative terms the differences among the groups of women were less striking. Mean daily intakes of iron, vitamin A, thiamin, vitamin B6 and vitamin C were below the Dutch recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) among the nursing home women. Several interrelationships among nutrient intakes were found, low intake levels clustering somewhat among elderly subjects. Our data indicate that these nutritional risks are due to a lower food intake resulting in a lower intake of energy and nutrients, and owing to differences in food choice resulting in a lower nutrient density. We conclude that it is difficult to design a diet containing all essential nutrients at the RDA level in a nursing home with residents who have a relatively low intake of energy, especially among those at higher age.     

Institutionalized elderly women have lower food intake than do those living more independently (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System).

The habitual intake of energy and nutrients (assessed through dietary history) among elderly women (aged 65 and over) living in a nursing home (n = 54), elderly women living in service flats and receiving their dinners from the nursing home kitchen (n = 29), and elderly women living independently (n = 52) was evaluated within the framework of the Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System. Intake of energy and nutrients was lowest among women in the nursing home and highest among those living independently. Almost all differences in absolute intake found were significant, both unadjusted and adjusted for age. In the nursing home the intake of energy and nutrients was lower at higher age. In qualitative terms the differences among the groups of women were less striking. Mean daily intakes of iron, vitamin A, thiamin, vitamin B6 and vitamin C were below the Dutch recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) among the nursing home women. Several interrelationships among nutrient intakes were found, low intake levels clustering somewhat among elderly subjects. Our data indicate that these nutritional risks are due to a lower food intake resulting in a lower intake of energy and nutrients, and owing to differences in food choice resulting in a lower nutrient density. We conclude that it is difficult to design a diet containing all essential nutrients at the RDA level in a nursing home with residents who have a relatively low intake of energy, especially among those at higher age.     

Diet diversity and nutrient intake

Variety is espoused as a key to dietary adequacy, yet data from new shortcut dietary measures suggest that intakes of relatively few foods can accurately classify individuals according to nutrient intake. This study examines diet diversity, caloric intake, and nutrient density values as contributors to the level of selected nutrients in the diets of 1,747 white men and 1,898 white women, 18 to 34 years old, completing the 24-hour recall in NHANES II. Nutrient intake was directly related to both number of foods eaten and total calories consumed, as well as to nutrient density values. For fat, saturated fat, and potassium, higher caloric consumption alone may account for substantial differences in nutrient intakes between the lowest and highest quartiles. For cholesterol, calcium, and vitamin A, differences in dietary density were more important in explaining nutrient intake differences. Both caloric intake and nutrient density influence sodium intake from food sources. For some nutrients, an overall measure of diversity may be useful for estimating intakes. For others, nutrient-specific diversity indexes would likely be needed. Knowledge of specific foods in diets with high levels of nutrients could aid the construction of food frequency instruments.     

Unintended Consequences: Nutritional Impact and Potential Pitfalls of Switching from Animal- to Plant-Based Foods

Consumers are shifting towards plant-based diets, driven by both environmental and health reasons. This has led to the development of new plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) that are marketed as being sustainable and good for health. However, it remains unclear whether these novel PBMAs to replace animal foods carry the same established nutritional benefits as traditional plant-based diets based on pulses, legumes and vegetables. We modelled a reference omnivore diet using NHANES 2017–2018 data and compared it to diets that substituted animal products in the reference diet with either traditional or novel plant-based foods to create flexitarian, vegetarian and vegan diets matched for calories and macronutrients. With the exception of the traditional vegan diet, all diets with traditional plant-based substitutes met daily requirements for calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, iron and Vitamin B12 and were lower in saturated fat, sodium and sugar than the reference diet. Diets based on novel plant-based substitutes were below daily requirements for calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc and Vitamin B12 and exceeded the reference diet for saturated fat, sodium and sugar. Much of the recent focus has been on protein quality and quantity, but our case study highlights the risk of unintentionally increasing undesirable nutrients while reducing the overall nutrient density of the diet when less healthy plant-based substitutes are selected. Opportunities exist for PBMA producers to enhance the nutrient profile and diversify the format of future plant-based foods that are marketed as healthy, sustainable alternatives to animal-based products.     

Food choices of vegetarians and nonvegetarians during pregnancy and lactation

Data on food choices and nutrient intake were obtained from 60 lactating women, including 29 vegetarians. The most common changes in consumption patterns during pregnancy were increased intake of high-protein foods, especially milk products, and decreased intake of coffee, tea, and alcohol. The changes were partially based on food cravings and/or aversions. In addition to high-protein foods, some of the women craved fruits and sweets. Items most commonly eliciting aversive reactions were vegetables, strong-smelling and strong-tasting combination dishes, and greasy foods. Aversions to coffee, tea, and alcohol were almost as frequent as those to greasy foods. Nutrient intake during lactation was measured using 24-hour recalls and 2-day diet records that also considered dietary supplements. A total of 332 intake records were evaluated relative to the RDAs for lactating women. Mean energy intake was 2,200 kcal (88% of the recommendation), and mean protein intake was 86 gm (134% of the RDA). Mean nutrient intakes from diet alone ranged from 89% of the RDA for iron to 154% for vitamin A; mean intakes from diet plus supplements ranged from 133% of the RDA for calcium to 581% of the RDA for thiamin. Dietary supplementation provided a substantial part of the intake of some nutrients; for most women, however, the RDAs were met by diet alone.     

Nutrient intakes of the old elderly: A study of female residents of a long-term care facility

A study was conducted to determine the nutrient content of foods served to and consumed by a group of 30 women over 80 years of age, residing in a long-term care facility. Food items were weighed prior to and following food service for a five-day period, and results were calculated using a computer program containing values for specific foods served in the facility. The average daily energy content of the foods served was 1738±285 kcal, and this supplied levels of nutrients that were adequate with respect to the Canadian standard for all nutrients except calcium. Subjects consumed an average of 75% of the food served, for a mean energy intake of 1311±252 kcal. The mean intakes of vitamin C, iron, niacin and riboflavin were adequate in comparison to the standards, whereas average intakes of protein, calcium, vitamin A, thiamin and zinc were lower than the standards. At least 33% of subjects consumed diets which did not supply 2/3 of recommended levels of calcium, vitamin A, thiamin and zinc. Significant negative correlations between age and the intake of several nutrients were detected, providing an explanation for the lower intakes of this group of old elderly relative to other published studies of younger elderly. The potentially greater vulnerability of the old elderly to dietary inadequacies needs to be confirmed. Nevertheless, the possibility of such inadequacy should be borne in mind when evaluating their health status, as undernutrition need not be an invevitable accompaniment of age.     

Dietary sodium intake of infants fed commercially prepared baby food and table food

Sodium intake of infants varies widely with the type of food consumed. However, few reports are available describing the nutrients, including sodium values, of dietary intakes of infants receiving supplemental foods. The purpose of this study was to determine the sodium, energy, and nutrient values of diets for infants from low-income families participating in the WIC program. The sample consisted of 306 infants, aged 4 through 7 months, who were seen in well-child clinics. Approximately 200 of the infants were reportedly fed commercially prepared baby food as the only solid food; 55 received 50% or more of their energy from table foods. The dietary intakes of infants receiving supplemental foods and consuming commercially prepared baby foods included significantly less sodium than the intakes of infants fed primarily table foods. As a group, all infants met the RDAs for most nutrients but had higher sodium values than reported by other researchers. The group of infants for whom consumption of table foods was reported had values above the acceptable range for sodium primarily because the caregivers failed to provide low-sodium, nutrient-dense, supplemental foods in the quantities prescribed but instead substituted sodium-dense meat and vegetable products.     

The contribution of enrichment and fortification to nutrient intake of women

A volunteer group of 162 women aged 25 to 49 years was recruited from three suburban supermarkets in central New York state. The women completed 3-day food records, which were analyzed for total nutrient intake and contribution of eight nutrients from three sources: (a) nutrients naturally present in food, (b) enriched/fortified foods with a standard of identity (FF + SI), and (c) fortified foods without standards of identity (FF-SI). Subjects were placed into study groups of high-, moderate-, and low-fortifiers on the basis of frequency of intake of highly fortified foods (FF-SI) which, unlike FF + SI, are not staple foods and may represent selective dietary nutrient addition by the consumer. For all groups, mean intakes of riboflavin, niacin, and vitamins A and C were greater than 100% of the RDAs without nutrient addition. Mean thiamin intake met the RDA only when the nutrient addition from FF + SI was included. Mean intakes of iron, calcium, and vitamin D were all below the RDA even when all sources of intake were included. No significant differences between study groups were found for total nutrient intake. With the exceptions of vitamin C, vitamin D, and calcium, high- and moderate-fortifiers had significantly greater (p less than .01) nutrient intake from fortification. Low-fortifiers had significantly greater (p less than .05) intake from naturally occurring vitamins A and C than high-fortifiers.     

Cross-sectional measurement of nutrient intake among adolescents in 1996

BACKGROUND: Many components are involved in an assessment of diet and health among youth. To address these issues and document the major contributions of fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals to the diet, we analyzed baseline cross-sectional data from a cohort of 16,882 youth. METHODS: Cross-sectional analyses were conducted on the Growing Up Today Study dietary data reported by 16,882 9- to 14-year-olds in 1996. The adolescent food frequency questionnaire was used to assess this age group's eating habits. Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated on energy-adjusted and unadjusted data. RESULTS: Mean intake (including vitamin/mineral supplementation) for all nutrients met 100% of the RDAs, except calcium for girls. Comparing the servings of foods with the USDA Food Pyramid, neither boys nor girls met recommended number of servings except for dairy. Overweight participants consumed fewer kilocalories and lower levels of nutrients than their nonoverweight peers. CONCLUSION: These cross-sectional data from 1996 indicate that this cohort is consuming foods and nutrients comparable with national data of less fat and more carbohydrates in their diet. Overweight participants have similar dietary patterns except for total energy. The cohort's diet (with vitamin/mineral supplementation) is meeting the RDAs, but actual foods consumed suggest a lack of balance in the diet.     

The relationship between beliefs about nutrition and dietary practices of the elderly

Data were collected from home interviews of 424 noninstitutionalized individuals, 58 to 100 years old, in the Houston metropolitan area, to assess the relationships between dietary intake, socioeconomic variables, beliefs about nutrition, and use of nutritional supplements. Two-thirds of the subjects took nutritional supplements. The most common forms were vitamin C, calcium, and multivitamins. With the exception of vitamin B-6, magnesium, and dietary fiber, which were higher in diets of users of nutritional supplements than in diets of nonusers, nutrient density (amount of nutrient per 1,000 kcal) did not differ between the two groups. Attitudes toward the use of nutritional supplements, health foods, and/or nutritional quality of conventional foods differed with sex, age, income, and educational level. Nutrient intake of those with more positive feelings about nutritional supplements was higher, perhaps as a result of increased awareness of diet and health. Nutrition education that is targeted to issues of interest to people in this age group is needed; topics such as the role of nutrients in disease prevention and appropriate nutritional supplementation might be explored. This survey indicates that, although the practice of supplementation may be beneficial to augment nutritional quality of the diet for elderly people, use of nutritional supplements is not restricted to those whose dietary intake is of lower nutrient density than that of nonusers.     

Dietary practices of high school teachers of nutrition

To examine the application of nutrition knowledge in a sample of nutrition educators, we investigated the dietary practices of 71 high school health and home economics teachers who were currently teaching nutrition. They kept four-day food records and filled out food-frequency questionnaires. Group means of female teachers met or exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for seven of the eight nutrients investigated; mean iron intake was 66% of the RDA. Group means of males met the RDAs for the nutrients investigated except thiamin, which had a mean of 89% of the RDA. Teachers' diets were more nutrient dense for calcium, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid than were the diets of adults surveyed in the Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I (HANES I) and the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS). Except for iron for females, inadequate intakes of individual teachers generally were related to low caloric intakes. Teachers incorporated many current dietary recommendations in their personal praices, such as eating several servings of fruits and vegetables daily, including several servings of dairy products daily, limiting cholesterol intake, and limiting sweets. However, the teachers' mean percentage of calories from fat exceeded the current recommendation. Generally, these teachers applied their nutrition knowledge to their personal dietary practices and thus serve as role models who “practice what they preach”.     

The role of breakfast in nutrient intake of 5- to 12-year-old children

From 7-day food diaries of a cross-sectional sample of American children (n = 657), breakfast consumption patterns were assessed and related to average daily nutrient intake patterns. Results indicated that few of the children skipped breakfast and that breakfast consumption made a significant contribution to the average child's daily nutrient intake. Further, children who had ready-to-eat cereals at breakfast three or more times during the 1-wk period were found to have consumed significantly less (p less than 0.001) fat and cholesterol and significantly more (p less than 0.001) fiber, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron, folacin, pyridoxine, and vitamins B12, A and D than those who had no ready-to-eat cereal at breakfast. Average total daily intakes of the same groups had fewer significant differences. Comparison of the average nutrient composition of the three types of consumed breakfasts revealed that the average breakfast containing presweetened or nonsweetened ready-to-eat cereal had a higher content of sixteen nutrients and a lower content of five nutrients than did the average breakfast including no ready-to-eat cereal.     

Selected Mineral Intakes of Adult African-Americans in the Washington, DC Area

The objective of this study was to assess daily self-selected mineral intake of free-living African-American adults using the duplicate portion collection technique coupled with direct chemical analysis. A duplicate sample of every food and beverage consumed was collected by each subject. The collection period was for 3 days (Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday) of 1 week in 1986. The chemical analysis included calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and phytate. Forty adult African-Americans (20 females and 20 males) living in the Washington, DC area volunteered to participate. They were apparently healthy, ranging in age from 21 to 65 years, with a median age of 38.5 years. The analytical data from the daily food and beverage intake were compared with the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)/ Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes (ESADDI). The results were also compared with data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III and USDA's Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals(USDA-CSFII 1989–91). Compared with the RDA/ESADDI, for women, the median intakes of less than two-thirds the recommendations were : calcium (54%), magnesium (65%), iron (61%), copper(60%), zinc (61%), and potassium (50%) as determined by chemical analysis. For the men, applying the same criteria, the minerals and percentages are: calcium (64%), magnesium (56%), copper (60%), zinc (61%), and potassium (58%). The phytate:zinc and phytate × Ca:Zn molar ratios suggested no general inhibition of zinc bioavailability despite some higher than suggested limiting molar ratios found in a few individual daily diets. Although limited in scope, these results suggest that African-American adults are selecting diets that are frequently low in specific minerals. Some of these essential nutrients have been implicated in chronic health problems prevalent in this ethnic group; e.g., hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, nutritionists and other health professionals should emphasize the need for a wider selection of foods to prevent specific mineral deficits. These foods might include acceptable dairy products, meats/seafood, and mineral-fortified cereals/breads and juices.     

Zinc and copper in self-selected diets.

Levels of zinc and copper in the self-selected diets of twenty-two men and women were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Sixty-eight per cent of the subjects consumed less than two-thirds of the recommended allowance for zinc (15 mg). Eighty-one per cent consumed less than two-thirds of the suggested level of copper (2.0 mg). Average daily intake of protein exceeded the recommended allowance. However, the mean zinc:calorie ratio for those subjects was only 4.19 mg. per 1,000 kcal. Using the recommended allowances for zinc and for energy, the zinc:calorie ratio would be 6.5 mg. per 1,000 kcal. For copper, the suggested nutrient density is 0.85 mg. per 1,000 kcal vs. the 0.50 mg. per 1,000 kcal observed in this study. These metallo:calorie ratios indicate that the nutrient density of these two trace elements in the diet is low and that diets supplying adequate amounts of energy and protein do not guarantee adequate levels of zinc and copper.