Comparison of verbal reinforcement with information feedback in analogue psychotherapy

Thirty Ss were assigned randomly to one of two experimental analogue psychotherapy groups and a control group. In the experimental psychotherapy groups two different psychotherapy techniques were used for eight sessions. The two psychotherapy techniques employed were one-word verbal reinforcement (VR) and lengthy verbal information feedback (IF). Three therapists each demonstrated significant differences (p < .001) in their verbal interactions with the Ss when they used the two different psychotherapy techniques. The results indicated that both treatment techniques were significantly effective (p < .05) in improving self-ratings of self-concept. However, the two psychotherapy techniques were differentially effective in improving social skills as measured by behavioral ratings.     

The relationship of sex role to self-concept

Investigated the relationship of sex role in 136 Ss as measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory to measures of self-concept and overt anxiety. Persons who rated themselves low in both masculine and feminine attributes were found to have significantly poorer self-concepts than both androgynous and masculine Ss, which suggests that this group should be distinguished from high-high scorers labeled as androgynous. There was no significant difference in self-concept between masculine and androgynous Ss, and the masculine group reported significantly lower levels of anxiety. These findings support a previous contention that it is the presence of masculine attributes rather than a balance of masculinity and femininity that is crucial to personal adjustment.     

Effect of Knowledge of Response on the Self-Control of Heart Rate

At an initial session groups of Ss either were (1) correctly informed of the response to be controlled, HR, and given visual feedback of it, or were (2) correctly informed of the response but given no feedback, or were (3) incorrectly informed of the response and given feedback of HR, or were (4) not informed of the response and given feedback of HR. At a second session half of the misinformed and uninformed Ss were correctly informed. Trials on which Ss were to raise and to lower HR were both given. Between group comparisons generally supported the proposition that correct knowledge of response facilitates learning to lower HR when given external feedback. Results on raising HR, although generally indicating the facilitative role of correct knowledge of response, were not as consistent as those for lowering. Within group comparisons showed trends for correct knowledge of response to improve HR control. Further within group comparisons of raise HR and lower HR trials consistently showed that Ss who knew the correct response and received feedback of it, achieved control of HR, whereas those who were misinformed or who received no feedback did not achieve control.     

A cognitive-behavioral approach to social skills training with shy persons

Developed, implemented, and evaluated a social skills training program for shy persons. Twelve Ss (6 males and 6 females) were given 9 hours of social skills training, while 12 other Ss (6 males and 6 females) served as a wait-list control group. Prior to and immediately after training, Ss completed self-report measures to assess social anxiety, cognitive self-statements, and perceived ability to participate actively in social situations. Results indicated that Ss in the experimental group, relative to the control group, significantly: (a)decreased their level of social anxiety; (b) decreased their negative self-statements; and (c) increased their perceived ability to participate actively in social situations. Discussion focused on directions of future research in the area of shyness.     

The differential impact of self-monitoring on smoking behavior: An exploratory

This study investigated the impact of self-monitoring on smoking patterns of internal and external smokers. Eighty-nine Ss charted their smoking behavior (number of cigarettes per day) on a daily basis for 4 consecutive weeks, after which personality measures were administered. Self-monitoring produced wide changes in reported cigarette consumption, although this procedure did not change significantly smoking behavior for the entire sample. Ss were divided arbitrarily into three categories: Ss who increased 20 cigarettes or more, Ss who decreased 20 cigarettes or more, and Ss who increased or decreased up to 19 cigarettes. Negative affect traits, locus of control, and self-concept variables did not differentiate increasers, decreasers, or maintainers. Ss who increased consumption reported greater reinforcement value from solitary related as opposed to socially oriented functions than the decreasers and the maintainers. Future studies should explore the meaningfulness of an intervention designed to improve the smoker's social interactions.     

ABILITY OF ACTORS TO CONTROL THEIR GSRS AND EXPRESS EMOTIONS

Ability to control GSRs through the use of ideational stimulation was studied in 26 professional actors. During one 10-min period, “Respond,”Ss had to make as many GSRs as possible; during the other period, “Rest,”Ss were instructed to inhibit their GSRs. All Ss received continuous visual feedback of their responses during both periods. No relationship was found between ability to control GSRs and emotional expression as measured by the ratings of directors. However, as predicted, method actors performed at a significantly higher level than non-method actors. An additional finding was that those actors who normally experience sweating as their primary response to stress performed at a higher level than non-sweaters.     

Cognitive processes in depression

Tested hypotheses derived from Beck's cognitive theory of depression using 60 depressed and nondepressed males and females. Ss rated performance before and after they received feedback on a social interaction task. Ss then attempted to recall feedback and explain their post-feedback self-rating. Results showed that depressed males and females had more negative evaluation of present circumstances and poorer memory for feedback. Further, depressed males lowered their self-evaluation after feedback significantly more than did nondepressed males. Results with regard to differential response to neutral and positive feedback were not found because Ss apparently perceived all levels of feedback as somewhat negative. Data were partially supportive of Beck's cognitive theory of depression, especially with regard to males.     

The Effects of Immediate Feedback Upon Voluntary Control of Salivary Rate

Thirteen human subjects (Ss) were given immediate auditory feedback concerning their salivary rates and were asked both to increase and to decrease their rates during a series of 30-sec trials. Significant decreases, but not increases, in salivary rate were obtained relative to baseline. During the second half of the experiment, when feedback was omitted until the end of each trial, Ss maintained significant differential response rates between increase and decrease trials, but the reliability of decreases from expected baseline was reduced. Thirteen control Ss, who received feedback only at the end of each trial during both halves of the experiment, were unable to alter their rates during either half. Salivation on increase and decrease trials was not systematically correlated with changes in either heart rate or breathing rate in the immediate feedback group.     

The impact of chronic pain on the self-concept.

Compared self-concepts of three groups, medical patients, chronic low back pain patients and chronic head pain patients (N = 60) to determine (1) whether chronic pain patients have self-perceptions that differ from other medical patients; (2) whether changes in self-perception are limited to physical attributes and capacities; and finally (3) whether persons who suffer different types of chronic pain would have differing self-concepts. Significantly lower self-concepts were obtained from groups of head pain and low back pain patients. Self-concept patterns for the two pain groups were quite similar with the exception of two self-concept components that were significantly lower for the head pain group. Differences were explained in terms of loss of many normal functions and disruption of normal life-styles. Implications for treatment of pain patients and for training of health professionals were discussed.     

The effects of structured and unstructured leader roles on internal and external group participants

This study assessed the impact of structured and unstructured leader roles on measures of outcome for Ss who differed on the pretest dimension “locus of control.” On the basis of their pretest locus of control scores, Ss were assigned to a structured or an unstructured marathon group. The treatment in the two 16-hour marathons consisted of a defined series of exercises; the only difference between the two groups was the degree of leader control over member participation. As predicted, internal Ss in the unstructured group rated the leader and the group more positively than did external Ss, while the reverse responsivity occured in the structured group. Significant Locus of Control × Treatment interactions indicated that internal and external Ss reflected differential shifts in general anxiety, general depression, and locus of control as a function of treatment. The relationship between changes in self-actualization and locus of control and changes in conflict-handling styles and negative affects differed as a function of locus of control and treatment condition. The overall results coupled with prior findings tentatively support the appropriateness of an unstructured leader role for internal scorers and a structured leader role for external scorers.     

Body disclosure and self-disclosure-relating two modes of interpersonal encounter

This study investigated the relationship between body-disclosure and self-disclosure. The author drew upon current research in self-disclosure and body image and hypothesized that self-disclosure and body-disclosure would be directly related. Ss who volunteered for the experiment were matched for sex, past disclosure, and willingness to disclose to someone of the opposite sex. A social nudity experience was provided for one group, an outing day was provided for the second group, and a third group received no treatment. Testing included a tape recorded self-disclosure dialogue and ratings of self-and body attitudes. Finally the Ss were asked to write their subjective „experience of the experiment.”︁ Ss who had undergone a body-disclosure experience disclosed more to each other than did Ss in the other groups. Ss also tended to like themselves better after the social nudity experience. Furthermore, they described the body-disclosing day as a peak experience.     

留守儿童家庭环境状况及其与自我概念-应对方式的关系

目的探讨留守儿童家庭环境因素与其自我概念、应对方式的关系。方法采用家庭环境量表中文版、田纳西自我概念量表、中学生应对方式评定问卷对351名高中生(留守儿童172名)进行测查。结果①与非留守儿童相比,留守儿童家庭环境的亲密度、情感表达、道德宗教、控制性显著偏低,矛盾性显著偏高;在自我概念和应对方式方面,留守儿童的自我认同、自我满意、自我行动、指向问题较低,指向情绪较高(t=2.327~3.992,P<0.05);②儿童家庭环境与自我概念、应对方式多个维度存在显著的相关(t=-0.22~0.317,P<0.05);③儿童自我概念与应对方式多个维度存在显著的相关(t=-0.385~0.254,P<0.05)。结论留守儿童处在相对不良的家庭环境中,同时不良的家庭环境因素与消极的自我概念和应对方式相关,且自我概念和应对方式相互影响。     

Social avoidance and distress as a predictor of perceived locus of control and level of self-esteem

Proposed the degree of social discomfort to be indicative of an individual's perceived locus of control and level of self-esteem. Introductory psychology students (N = 143) at the University of Alaska completed questionnaires for Social Avoidance and Distress (SAD), Rotter's Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement Scale, and Janis-Field Personality Inventory. There were significant differences in locus of control and level of self-esteem among those Ss rated as high SAD, moderate SAD, and low SAD. High SAD Ss were found to have significantly greater external locus of control and lower self-esteem than either the moderate or low SAD Ss. Individuals who experience social anxiety, as opposed to those who are comfortable in social situations, are likely to feel that they have less control over the rewards in life and experience less positive self-regard.     

Anxiety and Feedback as Factors in Operant Heart Rate Control

Thirty-three Ss were chosen on the basis of their Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale scores. Eleven Ss were assigned to each of three groups, low anxiety (LA), medium anxiety (MA), and high anxiety (HA). The study was then carried out to determine the relationships between manifest anxiety, amount of feedback, and heart rate (HR) control. Each S attempted to synchronize his HR with a series of clicks so that each heartbeat (R wave) would occur within .2 sec after a click. Each S was tested alternately with non-augmented biofeedback (NAF), and with visually augmented feedback (AF) during several test periods. Overall, Ss were found to be able to produce a significantly higher than chance percentage of heartbeats in the .2 sec interval in spite of the fact that HA Ss had a negative mean HR control score. MA Ss' mean score was significantly higher than that of the HA Ss. Different physiological characteristics were found to be significantly correlated with successful HR control depending upon which anxiety group S was in. No significant difference was found between NAF and AF conditions.     

THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL SET AND AUTONOMIC PERCEPTION ON CARDIAC CONTROL

Fifty-four Ss were divided into three instructional groups. One group was instructed to increase their heart rate (HR) every time a signal was presented; a second group was told to decrease their HR; and a control group was not instructed to change their HR in any direction. Results indicate that Ss can increase or decrease their HR in the absence of externalized feedback. These HR changes do not appear to be mediated by respiration or skin resistance variations. In addition, Ss were divided into groups on the basis of their APQ scores. The group with middle APQ scores displayed more HR control in both directions than Ss with high or low APQ scores. The study was replicated with 42 Ss and results support the HR increase but not the HR decrease findings.     

Schizophrenic performance during interpersonal competitive conditions

Two equivalent forms of four standardized tests were administered to 41 schizophrenics, 36 patients with personality disorder diagnoses, and 36 employees at the Wyoming State Hospital. Each diagnostic group was divided into experimental and control groups; the experimental Ss from each diagnostic group took the second form of each test under paired, competitive conditions. The competitive conditions did not affect the experimental Ss' performance on any of the four tests to an acceptably significant level, although the experimental Ss from each diagnostic group performed better on a visual-motor task at a borderline level of significance. The results of the research are interpreted as supporting previous competition research that showed competitive conditions to be highly task-specific. The results do not support the numerous theories and some research studies that suggest that competitive conditions impair schizophrenic functioning.     

The Relationship of Locus of Control, Self-Report Measures, and Feedback to the Voluntary Control of Heart Rate

Forty internal and external locus of control subjects (Ss) were instructed to control their heart rate on 8 trial pairs. Each trial pair consisted of an increase and a decrease heart rate condition with the order being counterbalanced across Ss. On the last 4 heart rate control trials, the Ss were given visual feedback concerning the time interval between each heart beat via a light panel of 16 check lights. The major findings of this study were: (1) feedback significantly increased the magnitude of the IBI changes across all Ss; (2) locus of control differences were found across all trials with the internal locus of control Ss being able to increase their heart rate better than the external locus of control Ss, and the external locus of control Ss were better able to decrease heart rate as compared with the internals; and (3) self-report measures demonstrated that external and internal locus of control Ss adopted different strategies for controlling heart rate, and these strategies were related to previous psychophysiological research not requiring the direct control of heart rate.     

Long-term neuropsychological deficits after traumatic head injury with comatosis

Studied neuropsychological deficits in a population who had sustained traumatic head injuries of the concussive type. Experimental Ss were 48 adults who had been comatose and hospitalized during the 3-year period that preceded the study. Control Ss (N = 16) had been hospitalized due to other types of injuries and had not been comatose. Ss were recalled and administered the Halstead-Reitan Battery, Trail Making Test, WAIS, and various questionnaires. Significant differences between experimental and control Ss were found that indicated persistence of neuropsychological dysfunctions. Groups of Ss who had sustained long comas performed more poorly than those who had short comas, which indicated that duration of coma was an important factor.     

The effect of alcohol and placebo on affective reactions of social drinkers to a procedure designed to induce depressive affect anxiety and hostility

Randomly assigned 33 males to one of three alcohol conditions: High dose (two groups), placebo, and no-dose. All Ss after drinking performed a pseudo test of intelligence. One group of high-dose Ss received feedback that indicated an extremely good performance on the intelligence task (Incentive Gain), while all other Ss received extremely poor performance scores (Incentive Loss). Analysis of pre-post feedback scores on the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List indicated differential effect of alcohol and placebo with no change of depressive affect in the two high-dose alcohol groups, but an increase in placebo Ss Furthermore, incentive loss high-dose Ss rated themselves as significantly more intoxicated than did incentive gain high-dose Ss. The results are discussed in terms of attributions for success and failure, cognitions and depressive affect, and tension reduction models of alcoholism.     

Cardiac Responses in Aversive Situation With and Without Avoidance Possibility

This experiment is concerned with evaluating the cardiac responses of human Ss in an aversive situation. Two main conditions were investigated: Control of shock occurrence (Avoidance) and Passivity, that is, Ss were instructed to passively receive the shocks. Sixty Ss were used. The Avoidance condition was further divided into 3 specific groups. One group of Ss had to avoid the aversive stimulus by a proper task (depressing keys) without any certainty about the result of their action until the habitual moment of shock occurrence. Ss in a second group were provided immediate feedback from their action via a light bulb. A third group of Ss kept receiving shocks whatever they tried. After completion of 30 trials the conditions for each Ss were reversed by appropriate instructions and run for another 20 trials. A decelerative cardiac response was found in anticipation of shock for Ss in the Passivity condition. In the Avoidance condition, such a deceleration was found for trials during which Ss had had a feedback of their failure to avoid (second group) and were expecting an oncoming shock. Furthermore, only the Ss in Avoidance condition displayed HR acceleration after the signal onset of the ISI. Specific variations were found in the second phase of the experiment for the third group of Avoidance condition.