Quantification of TRPV1 Protein Levels in Rat Tissues to Understand its Physiological Roles

Transient receptor potential subfamily V, member 1 (TRPV1) is a nonselective cation channel expressed in both the peripheral and central nervous systems (CNS). TRPV1 protein levels in rat tissues were determined under normal and pain states using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In naive rats, brain TRPV1 protein concentrations ranged from 1.5 to 4 ng/mg in hippocampus, cortex, hypothalamus, and cerebellum. Rat spinal cord TRPV1 protein levels were 40–50 ng/mg in L1–L5 of the lumbar regions, but increased to 97?±?9.3 ng/mg toward the end of the lumbar region (L6–S1). In the complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammatory pain model, TRPV1 protein level significantly increased on both the contralateral (36.5 %, p?<?0.05) and ipsilateral (31.4 %, p?<?0.05) L4–L6 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). TRPV1 protein levels also increased 33.3 % (p?<?0.05) on the ipsilateral sciatic nerve, but no significant change in the lumbar spinal cord of CFA rats. In the monoiodoacetate-induced rat knee joint pain model, TRPV1 protein level was significantly reduced in the ipsilateral L3–L5 DRG (33.3 %, p?<?0.01), no significant difference was detected in the lumbar region of the spinal cord. Quantitative determination of TRPV1 protein levels may help to elucidate the TRPV1 physiological roles and regulatory mechanisms in various pain states.     

Cutaneous inflammation regulates THIK1 expression in small C-like nociceptor dorsal root ganglion neurons

Tandem pore-domain Halothane Inhibited K⁺ channel (THIK1) is a two-pore-domain potassium channel (K2P) present in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). We previously demonstrated that THIK1 mRNA levels in the DRG dropped ipsilaterally 1 day after CFA-induced cutaneous inflammation (CFA1). In this study we aimed to identify the currently unknown DRG subpopulations expressing THIK1, and to investigate the relationship between the channel and both inflammatory and spontaneous pain in normal rats. Using a combination of immunohistochemistry, western blotting and behavioural tests, we found that all small neurons and large groups of medium and large DRG neurons express THIK1. Myelinated and unmyelinated fibers, nerve endings in the skin and lamina I and II of the spinal cord also express the channel. THIK1 staining co-localizes with IB4-binding and trkA suggesting that the channel is expressed by nociceptors. At CFA1, both cytoplasmic and edge (membrane-associated) THIK1 staining were significantly reduced only in small neurons ipsilaterally compared to normal. At 4 days after inflammation (CFA4), edge THIK1 staining levels in small neurons decreased bilaterally compared to normal. Medium and large size DRG neurons showed no change in THIK1 expression either at CFA1 or CFA4. Ipsilateral (but not contralateral) mean %intensities of THIK1 in small neurons at CFA1 correlated strongly negatively with spontaneous foot lifting (SFL) duration (a marker of spontaneous pain). Thus, nociceptors express THIK1 that can be regulated by cutaneous inflammation. Finally, in vivo siRNA knockdown of THIK1 resulted in longer SFL duration than siRNA scramble-treated rats. Taken together our evidence suggests a potential involvement for THIK1 in pain processing following inflammation.     

Endogenous prolactin generated during peripheral inflammation contributes to thermal hyperalgesia

Prolactin (PRL) is a hormone and a neuromodulator. It sensitizes TRPV1 (transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1) responses in sensory neurons, but it is not clear whether peripheral inflammation results in the release of endogenous PRL, or whether endogenous PRL is capable of acting as an inflammatory mediator in a sex-dependent manner. To address these questions, we examined inflammation-induced release of endogenous PRL, and its regulation of thermal hyperalgesia in female and male rats. PRL is expressed in several types of peripheral neuronal and non-neuronal cells, including TRPV1-positive nerve fibers, preadipocytes and activated macrophages/monocytes localized in the vicinity of nerves. Evaluation of PRL levels in hindpaws and plasma indicated that complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) stimulates release of peripheral, but not systemic, PRL within 6-48 h in both ovariectomized females with estradiol replacement (OVX-E) and intact male rats. The time course of release varies in OVX-E and intact male rats. We next employed the prolactin receptor (PRL-R) antagonist Δ1-9-G129R-hPRL to assess the role of locally produced PRL in nociception. Applied at a ratio of 1 : 1 (PRL:Δ1-9-G129R-hPRL; 40 nm each), this antagonist was able to nearly (≈ 80%) reverse PRL-induced sensitization of capsaicin responses in rat sensory neurons. CFA-induced inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia in OVX-E rat hindpaws was significantly reduced in a dose-dependent manner by the PRL-R antagonist at 6 h but not at 24 h. In contrast, PRL contributed to inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia in intact male rats at 24, but not at 6 h. These findings indicate that inflammation leads to accumulation of endogenous PRL in female and male rats. Furthermore, PRL acts as an inflammatory mediator at different time points for female and intact male rats.     

Peripheral Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Subtype 5 Contributes to Inflammation-Induced Hypersensitivity of the Rat Temporomandibular Joint

Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) comprise an assortment of clinical conditions characterized by pain in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). TMD patients have a variety of symptoms, including jaw movement disorder and TMJ pain. Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) was reported to be involved in pain processing in several animal models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. In this study, the head withdrawal threshold and mGluR5 expression were investigated in rats with complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced TMJ inflammatory pain. CFA injection into the TMJ significantly decreased the mechanical head withdrawal thresholds relative to vehicle injection, and the effects were blocked by pre-injection of 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP). mGluR5 expression in the trigeminal ganglion was predominantly increased in the CFA-injected group compared with the normal control group. Pretreatment with MPEP, a selective mGluR5 antagonist, reduced mGluR5 expression in the trigeminal ganglion compared with the CFA group, as measured by immunohistochemistry, western blotting, and RT-PCR. Significant differences in the proportion or intensity of mGluR5 expression were found in animals with inflammation versus control animals at the examined time point. These findings indicate a role for peripheral mGluR5 in CFA-induced nociceptive behavior and TMJ inflammation. Peripheral application of mGluR5 antagonists could provide therapeutic benefits for inflammatory TMJ pain.     

The importance of TRPV1-sensitisation factors for the development of neuropathic pain

Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1), classically associated with transduction of high-temperature and low-pH pain, underlies pain hypersensitivity in neuropathic pain. The molecular regulation of TRPV1 channel activity is not yet fully understood. Therefore, we investigated factors regulating sensitisation of this receptor during development of neuropathic pain in a rat model of chronic construction injury (CCI) in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG).In the rat CCI model, elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-1β and IL-6) in DRG corresponded to development of neuropathic pain. We assessed the expression of known kinases influencing TRPV1 sensitisation at the mRNA and/or protein level. Protein kinase C ε (PKCε) showed the strongest upregulation at the mRNA and protein levels among all tested kinases. Co-expression of PKCε and TRPV1 in L5 DRG of CCI animals was high during the development of neuropathic pain. The number of neurons expressing PKCε increased throughout the experiment.We provide complex data on the expression of a variety of factors involved in TRPV1 sensitisation in a CCI model of neuropathic pain. Our study supports evidence for involvement of TRPV1 in the development of neuropathic pain, by showing increased expression of interleukins and kinases responsible for the channel sensitisation. TNFα and NGF seem to play a role in the transition from acute to neuropathic pain, while PKCε in its maintenance. Further studies might confirm their significance as novel targets for the treatment of neuropathic pain.     

瞬时感受电位香草酸亚家族蛋白1受体在慢性偏头痛大鼠模型中的作用研究

目的本研究通过炎性汤(IS)反复刺激SD大鼠上矢状窦区硬脑膜建立慢性偏头痛(CM)大鼠模型,探讨瞬时感受电位香草酸亚家族蛋白1(TRPV1)受体在CM发病过程中的作用,为研究CM发病机制和治疗药物提供理论依据。方法 72只SD大鼠随机数字表法分为空白对照组(A组)、假手术组(B组)、CM模型组(C组)及TRPV1受体拮抗剂Capsazepine组(D组),采用免疫组织化学染色、Western-Blot、Real-time PCR技术检测大鼠硬脑膜、三叉神经节(TG)、三叉神经脊束尾侧核(TNC)中的TRPV1受体、降钙素基因相关肽(CGRP)表达量变化。结果 TRPV1受体和CGRP在CM大鼠硬脑膜、TG及TNC上的表达量均增加(P0.05),通过侧脑室注射Capsazepine药物后明显缓解大鼠疼痛,且TRPV1受体、CGRP表达量均明显下降(P0.05)。结论 TRPV1受体通过影响CGRP释放参与CM神经源性炎症反应及痛觉传导,提示TRPV1可能通过TRPV1-CGRP信号通路参与CM病理生理过程。     

Glucocorticoid Receptor Contributes to Electroacupuncture-Induced Analgesia by Inhibiting Nav1.7 Expression in Rats With Inflammatory Pain Induced by Complete Freund's Adjuvant

BackgroundWhile electroacupuncture (EA) has been used traditionally for the treatment of chronic pain, its analgesic mechanisms have not been fully clarified. We observed in an earlier study that EA could reverse inflammatory pain and suppress high Nav1.7 expression. However, the molecular mechanism underlying Nav1.7 expression regulation is unclear. In this study, we studied the relationship between the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and Nav1.7 and the role of these molecules in EA analgesia.Materials and MethodsIn this study, we established an inflammatory pain model by intraplantar injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) in rats. EA stimulation was applied to the ipsilateral “Huantiao” (GB30) and “Zusanli” (ST36) acupoints in the rat model. Western blotting, real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunostaining, intrathecal injection, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay were performed to determine whether the sodium channel protein Nav1.7 plays a role in CFA-induced pain and whether GR regulates Nav1.7 expression during analgesia following EA stimulation.ResultsEA application significantly decreased the paw withdrawal threshold thresholds and thermal paw withdrawal latency and suppressed GR and Nav1.7 expression in the dorsal root ganglion. Moreover, treatment with a GR sense oligonucleotide (OND) markedly reversed these alterations. In contrast, treatment with a GR antisense OND along with EA application exerted a better analgesic effect, which was accompanied by the suppression of Nav1.7 and GR protein expression. The ChIP assay showed that the binding activity of GR to the Nav1.7 promoter was enhanced in CFA injected rats and suppressed in EA-treated rats.ConclusionsThe present study demonstrated that EA exerted anti-hyperalgesic effects by inhibiting GR expression, which led to Nav1.7 expression modulation in the rat model of CFA-induced inflammatory pain.     

Sensory neuropeptide mRNA up-regulation is bilateral in periodontitis in the rat: a possible neurogenic component to symmetrical periodontal disease

Periodontal disease is a common multifactorial chronic inflammatory disease in humans. In inflammatory conditions that are known to be associated with changes in nociception, such as arthritis, the neuronal expression of the proinflammatory neuropeptides, substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide is altered. In this study the expression of these neuropeptides' mRNAs has been studied in an inflammatory model that shows no behavioural evidence of altered nociception. Periodontitis was induced in male rats by intragingival injection of lipopolysaccharide adjacent to the second right mandibular molar. The animals were killed at various times after lipopolysaccharide injection and right and left trigeminal ganglia and brain were processed for in situ hybridization for beta-preprotachykinin and alpha-calcitonin gene-related peptide mRNAs. Expression of both neuropeptide mRNAs was significantly increased only in small neurons in the mandibular division of the trigeminal ganglion ipsilateral to the LPS injection from 3 to 10 days postinjection. Neuropeptide mRNA expression was also significantly increased in the contralateral trigeminal ganglion at day 10. No significant changes in neuropeptide mRNA levels were seen in the maxillary and ophthalmic divisions of the trigeminal ganglia or in the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus. The up-regulation of substance P and CGRP mRNAs in periodontal disease suggests that this is associated with the inflammatory process rather than nociception, as this disease does not appear to result in altered nociception in either rats or humans. The contralateral alteration in neuropeptide mRNA expression suggests a role for neurogenic mechanisms in the development of periodontal disease.     

Glyceroltrinitrate facilitates stimulated CGRP release but not gene expression of CGRP or its receptor components in rat trigeminal ganglia

Nitric oxide (NO) donors induce delayed headaches in migraineurs. In a corresponding rat model NO donors cause delayed ongoing activity in central trigeminal neurons which process intracranial afferent input. Cellular models indicate that NO may increase the release or production of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), a key mediator in primary headaches. CGRP release from intact isolated trigeminal ganglia of adult male Wistar rats was investigated in vitro. Exposure to high NO donor concentrations did not affect basal or stimulated CGRP release. After a two hour infusion of the NO donor glyceroltrinitrate (250 μg/kg/h), however, inflammatory mediators-induced CGRP release was 80% higher compared to control animals. Administration of the soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor ODQ or the application of 8Br–cGMP revealed a cGMP-independent mechanism. In four groups of separate experiments total mRNA was extracted from rat trigeminal ganglia up to 6 h after glyceroltrinitrate or saline infusion. Gene expression of CGRP and the CGRP-receptor components, receptor activity-modifying protein 1, receptor component protein and calcitonin receptor-like receptor was measured by quantitative RT-PCR. Glyceroltrinitrate infusion did not change mRNA levels of these genes compared to infusion of saline. The present data suggest that prolonged increase in NO levels facilitates stimulated CGRP release from trigeminal ganglion neurons. The underlying mechanism appears to be independent of the cGMP pathway and not to interact with CGRP in the trigeminal ganglion. Delayed headaches induced by NO may change CGRP or CGRP-receptor expression.     

面部炎症痛诱发大鼠三叉神经节神经元中辣椒素受体表达的改变

目的探讨辣椒素受体（transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor 1,TRPV1）参与和面部炎症痛相关的热痛觉过敏与冷痛觉感受的可能机制。方法于大鼠面部皮下注射松节油造成面部炎症痛模型,分别应用热测痛和冷测痛装置测量热缩头潜伏期（head withdrawal thermal latency,HWTL）和冷缩头潜伏期（head withdrawal cold lentency,HWCL）的变化,每天测量一次,连续21天。应用免疫组织化学染色,细胞大小频率分析和平均光密度值分析来研究面部炎症痛后第3、5、7、14、21天支配大鼠面部表皮区三叉神经节（trigeminal ganglion,TG）初级感觉神经元、触须部皮肤末梢神经纤维和投射至三叉神经感觉尾侧亚核（trigeminal sensory nuclei caudalis,Vc）中枢突TRPV1表达的改变。结果注射松节油后第1至14天,热退缩反应潜伏期与冷退缩反应潜伏期均明显下降,分别于注射后第5天和第3天达到最低,第21天恢复到正常水平;注射松节油后第1至14天,TRPV1表达的细胞数量增加,并于第7天达到最大,第21天恢复到正常水平。正常大鼠TRPV1主要表达于TG的中小神经元,触须部皮肤以及三叉神经尾侧亚核含丰富的TRPV1阳性末梢;面部炎症痛后2周内,TG的中小神经元,触须部皮肤末梢以及Vc的Ⅰ和Ⅱ外层均可见明显的TRPV1表达增加。结论面部炎症痛可以引起大鼠对伤害性热刺激和冷刺激的痛觉过敏,并导致三叉神经节中TRPV1阳性神经元和外周与中枢阳性神经纤维末梢数目增加,表明TRPV1在三叉神经节的中小神经元和末梢轴突表型的改变可能对松节油引起面部炎症痛时热痛觉过敏和冷痛觉感受的形成与维持起重要作用。     

面部炎症痛诱发大鼠三叉神经节神经元中辣椒素受体表达的改变(英文)

目的探讨辣椒素受体(transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor 1,TRPV1)参与和面部炎症痛相关的热痛觉过敏与冷痛觉感受的可能机制。方法于大鼠面部皮下注射松节油造成面部炎症痛模型,分别应用热测痛和冷测痛装置测量热缩头潜伏期(head withdrawal thermal latency, HWTL)和冷缩头潜伏期(head withdrawal coldlentency, HWCL)的变化,每天测量一次,连续21天。应用免疫组织化学染色,细胞大小频率分析和平均光密度值分析来研究面部炎症痛后第3、5、7、14、21天支配大鼠面部表皮区三叉神经节(trigeminal ganglion,TG)初级感觉神经元、触须部皮肤末梢神经纤维和投射至三叉神经感觉尾侧亚核(trigeminal sensory nuclei caudalis,Vc)中枢突TRPV1表达的改变。结果注射松节油后第1至14天,热退缩反应潜伏期与冷退缩反应潜伏期均明显下降,分别于注射后第5 天和第3 天达到最低,第21 天恢复到正常水平;注射松节油后第1至14天 ,TRPV1表达的细胞数量增加,并于第7天达到最大,第21 天恢复到正常水平。正常大鼠TRPV1主要表达于TG的中小神经元,触须部皮肤以及三叉神经尾侧亚核含丰富的TRPV1阳性末梢;面部炎症痛后2周内,TG的中小神经元,触须部皮肤末梢以及Vc的Ⅰ和Ⅱ外层均可见明显的TRPV1表达增加。结论面部炎症痛可以引起大鼠对伤害性热刺激和冷刺激的痛觉过敏,并导致三叉神经节中TRPV1阳性神经元和外周与中枢阳性神经纤维末梢数目增加,表明TRPV1在三叉神经节的中小神经元和末梢轴突表型的改变可能对松节油引起面部炎症痛时热痛觉过敏和冷痛觉感受的形成与维持起重要作用。     

Expression of 5-HT(2A) receptor mRNA in some nuclei of brain stem enhanced in monoarthritic rats

The present study was designed to investigate the expression of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) (2A) receptor mRNA in the nucleus of raphe magnus (NRM), ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) in a monoarthritic rat model using an in situ hybridization technique. 5-HT(2A) receptor mRNA was expressed with low to moderate levels in NRM, vlPAG and DRN. After complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced monoarthritis, a significant increase in 5-HT(2A) receptor mRNA expression was observed in bilateral NRM, vlPAG and DRN, and the change lasted, at least, for 2 weeks. This result indicates that the synthesis of 5-HT(2A) receptor is enhanced in bilateral NRM, vlPAG and DRN of monoarthritic rats, suggesting that 5-HT(2A) receptor is involved in the central regulation of pain transmission following CFA-induced chronic inflammation.     

Ovarian steroids regulate neuropeptides in the trigeminal ganglion

Women are more than three times as likely as men to experience migraine headaches and temporomandibular joint pain, and painful episodes are often linked to the menstrual cycle. To understand how hormone levels may influence head and face pain, we assessed expression of pain-associated neuropeptides and estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) during the natural estrous cycle in mice. Gene expression was analyzed in the trigeminal ganglia of cycling female mice at proestrus, estrus and diestrus using RT-PCR. Peptide/protein expression in trigeminal neurons was analyzed using immunohistochemistry. ERalpha mRNA was present at all stages and highest at estrus. ERalpha protein was present in the cytoplasm of medium-sized and small trigeminal neurons. ERalpha immunoreactive neurons were most common at diestrus. CGRP and ANP mRNAs did not change across the estrous cycle, while expression of galanin and NPY mRNAs were strongly linked to the estrous cycle. Galanin mRNA levels peaked at proestrus, when expression was 8.7-fold higher than the diestrus levels. Galanin immunoreactivity also peaked at proestrus. At proestrus, 7.5% of trigeminal neurons contained galanin, while at estrus, 6.2% of trigeminal neurons contained galanin, and at diestrus, 4.9% of trigeminal neurons contained galanin. NPY mRNA peaked at estrus, when levels were 4.7-fold higher than at diestrus. Our findings suggest that estrogen receptors in trigeminal neurons modulate nociceptive responses through effects on galanin and NPY. Variations in neuropeptide content in trigeminal neurons across the natural estrous cycle may contribute to increases in painful episodes at particular phases of the menstrual cycle.     

RNA interference-mediated knock-down of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 prevents forepaw inflammatory hyperalgesia in rat

Transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV)1 is a ligand-gated cation channel expressed by primary sensory neurons, including those in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). TRPV1 plays an essential role in development of inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia after tissue injury and its expression in rat lumbar DRG is increased after hindpaw inflammation. However, the identity of factors mediating forepaw inflammatory hyperalgesia has remained elusive. Here, we examined behavioral responses to noxious thermal stimuli after forepaw inflammation in rats and found that inflammation induced by intraplantar injection of complete Freund's adjuvant significantly reduced hot-plate latency (HPL) at 50 degrees C. TRPV1 expression levels in the ipsilateral cervical DRG were also elevated after forepaw inflammation. By contrast, HPL at 56 degrees C was not shortened after forepaw inflammation and expression of TRPV2, a TRPV1 homolog, in the DRG was not increased. Paratracheal injection of short interfering RNA targeting TRPV1 blocked TRPV1 up-regulation in cervical DRG and abolished inflammation-mediated HPL reductions seen at 50 degrees C. However, thermal hyperalgesia previously established by inflammation was not reversed by short interfering RNA injection. These results indicate that: (i) enhanced TRPV1 expression in cervical DRG is closely associated with development of inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia in the forepaw after tissue injury and (ii) RNA interference targeting TRPV1 prevents inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia after forepaw injuries but does not ameliorate it when already established in a rat model of nociceptive pain representing upper limb injury in humans.