The role of the temperature of the nasal lining in the sensation of nasal patency

The receptors and neural pathways involved in the common symptom of nasal blockage are of great interest. Studies to date suggest that the sensation of nasal patency may be related to the temperature of the nasal passages. Sixty-two subjects were asked to assess their own nasal patency subjectively and indicate this on a visual analogue scale. The temperature of the nasal lining was continuously recorded during quiet nasal repiration using a non-contact infrared themometer. The cooler the nasal lining, the clearer the nose felt, and the greater the drop in temperature on inspiration again the clearer the nose felt. The study supports the previously proposed hypothesis that the sensation of nasal airflow is derived from a cooling of the nasal lining on inspiration, and this is probably detected by cold thermoreceptors in the mucosa.     

The limitations of peak nasal flow measurement

The Youlten Peak Nasal Flow Meter is a convenient device for obtaining objective measurements of nasal patency and gives static values which correlate well—though inversely—with resistance measured by rhinomanometry. In this study peak nasal flow and nasal resistance are compared before and after intranasal challenge using histamine. The comparatively small change in nasal resistance induced by low-dose histamine is not reliably detected by the peak flow meter. Large changes in nasal resistance with a higher dose of histamine are reflected by significant but small changes in peak nasal inspiratory flow. It is concluded that changes in nasal patency as measured by the Youlten meter are an insensitive measure of nasal patency compared with rhinomanometrically measured resistance changes. Continued use of the latter is recommended for physiological research.     

Correlation of subjective sensation of nasal patency with nasal inspiratory peak flow rate*

To determine the relationship between subjective sensation of nasal patency and objective measurement of nasal inspiratory peak flow rate, a longitudinal study was conducted using healthy volunteers. Five healthy medical practitioners, one woman and 4 men, aged 24–34 years, made daily subjective estimations of their sensation of nasal patency on a 10cm visual analogue scale. This was followed immediately by measurements of nasal inspiratory peak flow rate using a Youlten meter, repeated on at least 25 days per subject. Correlation coefficient and regression lines for subjective nasal patency on nasal inspiratory peak flow rate were calculated. One hundred and sixty nine sets of observations were made, range 25–44 per subject. Each subject showed strong evidence (P < 0.01) of positive correlation between subjective nasal patency score and nasal inspiratory peak flow rate. There was strong evidence (P < 0.001) that different regression lines are needed for different subjects, but no evidence that the lines are not parallel. Subjective sensation of nasal patency is strongly correlated with objective nasal patency, as measured by peak inspiratory flow rate. This relationship varies between individuals. Measurement of nasal inspiratory peak flow rate may be a valuable objective test of nasal patency, and is quick and simple to perform.     

The effect of nasal mucosal vasoconstriction on nasal airflow sensation

The correlation between the objective measurement of nasal resistance and nasal airflow sensation is usually regarded as poor. To investigate the relationship between these two parameters 20 healthy volunteers had nasal resistance to airflow measured by rhinomanometry compared with nasal sensation by visual analogue scoring before and after nasal mucosal vasoconstriction using topical 0.1% xylometazoline. The median change in nasal resistance was 0.2 kPal^-1s (95% CI 0.08–0.28 kPal^-1s) and in nasal sensation 24 mm (95% CI 17 mm-35 mm). A significant relationship between nasal sensation and nasal resistance to airflow was found (Kendall's Rank correlation (P < 0.05). This function can be described by the linear regression equation: dS = 13.2 + 70.dNR where dS = change in nasal sensation and dNR = change in nasal resistance. There may be a much closer relationship between subjective and objective measures of nasal patency than has previously been thought.     

Can snoring relief after nasal septal surgery be predicted?

Patients with nasal obstruction often have associated snoring. This study aims to find out if there are reliable predictors for the success or failure of septal surgery in relieving snoring in patients with symptomatic nasal obstruction secondary to a deviated nasal septum and who have associated snoring. Thirty patients were studied pre-operatively and at 4–12 months (mean 6 months) post-operatively. The intensity of snoring was measured on a visual analogue scale. Nasal patency was measured with a peak nasal inspiratory flow meter. The collapsibility of the soft palate was gauged by the degree of velopharyngeal closure on the Muller manoeuvre. Fifteen patients (50%) achieved snoring relief after septal surgery. The severity of nasal obstruction and intensity of snoring pre-operatively, the magnitude of nasal obstruction relief post-operatively and the degree of collapsibility of the soft palate were found not to influence the outcome of septal surgery on snoring. The relationship between nasal obstruction and snoring is complex and the alteration of airflow patterns after septal surgery is postulated to be important in influencing snoring relief.     

Nasal Mucosal Temperature after Exposure to Cold,Dry Air and Hot,Humid Air

Objective - To determine the influence of variations in the temperature and humidity of inhaled air on the nasal mucosal temperature at various sites int he nasal airways.

Materials and Methods - Fifteen volunteers were enrolled int he study. The temperature was measured on the mucosal surface of the nasal septum at the level of the nasal vestibule, in the nasal valve area, anterior turbinate area and choanae. Temperature measurements were made using a miniaturized thermocouple. Continuous temperature readings were performed before and after 10 min of exposure to either cold, dry air, ambient air or hot, humid air.

Results - Inhilation of cold, dry air significantly reduced the temperatyre of the septal mucosa at each location of measurement compared to the breathing of ambient air. Inhalation of hot, humid air significantly increased the septal mucosal temperature at all detection sites.

Conclusions - The climatic condition of inhaled air can lead to significant changes in nasal mucosal temperature. As the nasal mucosa is important for nasal air conditioning, short term exposure to air of extreme temperature and humidity can rapidly compromise nasal air conditioning.     

The relief of snoring by nasal surgery

Patients with nasal obstruction may also complain of snoring. It is uncertain whether surgery which relieves the nasal obstruction will also relieve the snoring. We have reviewed 126 patients who complained of both nasal obstruction and snoring and who underwent nasal surgery. Snoring was completely relieved in 39 patients (31%), was less loud in a further 72 patients (57%), unchanged in 11 and louder in 4. It occurred on fewer nights post-operatively in 61, on the same number in 24 and more frequently in 2. Patients who had nasal polypectomy as part of their nasal surgery obtained the greatest snoring relief. This study suggests that when snoring and nasal obstruction coexist nasal surgery should be considered as the first line of surgical treatment.     

Septoplasty with or without postoperative nasal packing? Prospective study

Anterior nasal packing is carried out in a number of nasal surgeries, especially in septoplasty. However, it is not an innocuous procedure and for this its benefit has been challenged.ObjectiveTo assess the need for anterior nasal packing and the quality of life of patients submitted to septoplasty.MethodPatients submitted to septoplasty with or without inferior turbinoplasty were randomized to receive or not anterior nasal packing postoperatively. We recorded and compared postoperative data (pain and bleeding). Quality of life was assessed before and after surgery. This is a randomized prospective study.ResultsWe had 73 patients (37 packed and 36 who did not receive a nasal packing) with a minimum follow-up of 3 months. Patients with nasal packing complained more of nasal pain and headache in the immediate postoperative period. Of these patients, 75.7% reported moderate/intense pain upon nasal packing removal. Bleeding was more frequent in those patients who did not receive a nasal packing, and only 1 patient required packing. All the patients enjoyed an improvement in quality of life.ConclusionSeptoplasty improves the quality of life of patients with septal deviation and nasal obstruction. Routine use of anterior nasal packing should be challenged for not presenting proven benefit.     

鼻内镜下复杂鼻中隔偏曲矫正术52例报告

目的:探讨鼻内镜下复杂鼻中隔偏曲矫正术的疗效及手术体会。方法:对52例高位后段、巨大嵴突和棘突、多种弯曲形态并存、鼻中隔骨折脱位及需二次矫正偏曲,经鼻内镜检查及鼻窦CT扫描(冠状位)确诊的患者采用经鼻内镜下偏曲矫正术,随访6个月以上。结果:52例患者鼻中隔矫正效果满意,鼻腔通气良好,无鼻中隔穿孔、鼻腔粘连及鼻梁塌陷等症状。结论:在鼻内镜下行复杂鼻中隔偏曲矫正术,照明度好,视野清晰宽广,精细准确,保持了鼻中隔稳定性,安全、微创,符合鼻生理功能的需要及微创手术的要求。     

The effect of histamine challenge on nasal airflow sensation

Objective nasal airflow resistance, as measured by the rhinomanometer, and the subjective sensation of nasal patency are usually regarded as showing poor correlation. However, previous population studies comparing nasal resistance and subjective nasal airflow sensation have failed to takee into account the great individual variation in resting nasal resistance. To investigate the potential relationship between the two parameters, 20 healthy volunteers underwent histamine nasal challenge tests. Nasal resistance prior to the intra-nasal administration of histamine (‘resting’ nasal resistance, NR_R) was compared with nasal resistance when the subject reported a subjective sensation of nasal blockage (‘obstructed’ nasal resistance, NR₀) and the two were found to be significantly correlated using the Spearman rank correlation method (r_s= 0.648, P = 0.002). Linear regression analysis using the method of least squares demonstrated an association between the two variables (P = 0.029), conforming to the formula NR₀= 1.26NR + 0.478, (resistance units kPa.s.1^?1). Subjective and objective measurements of nasal patency may be much more closely related than has previously been reported.     

Is the nasal cycle ablated in patients with high spinal cord trauma?

Is the nasal cycle ablated in patients with high spinal cord trauma? We have observed at our centre that patients with high spinal cord injury frequently complain of nasal obstruction requiring decongestants. This may be due to damage to the cervical sympathetic nerves supplying the nasal mucosa, which ablates the nasal cycle. In this study we assessed the nasal cycle in 10 patients with high spinal cord trauma (above T1 segment) using acoustic rhinometry. We found that all patients assessed within 1 year of injury had nasal obstruction and no nasal cycle. Patients with injuries between 1 and 4 years who complained of a nasal obstruction showed an irregular cycle. Patients with injuries older than 4 years showed a normal alternating reciprocal nasal cycle and an improvement of nasal symptoms. The exact reason for this recovery is presently not clear from this pilot study. Further research will be undertaken to assess reasons for the recovery and possible treatment regimens for this distressing condition.     

Variations in congestion of the nasal mucosa in man

Congestion of one side of the nose is accompanied by decongestion of the other side. This is called the nasal cycle. The nasal cycle does not seem to be present in all subjects and it has not been shown with rhinostereometry. There are very few studies showing whether there are spontaneous day-to-day variations in nasal mucosal congestion and no studies showing differences in nasal mucosal congestion between morning and afternoon. This, however, may be very important in studies covering a longer period. In the present study, data from four healthy volunteers were recorded 18 or 19 times in the mornings and afternoons on different days. Measurements were made with rhinostereometry, a peak flow meter (PNIF) and by symptom scores. A nasal cycle was found in some subjects. There was no difference in total nasal mucosal swelling in the mornings and in the afternoons and no day-to-day variation in the total nasal mucosal swelling.     

外鼻骨折分型及骨折部位对鼻中隔影响的CT分析

目的：探讨外鼻骨折的类型及分布,探究外鼻骨折对鼻中隔的影响。方法：随机选取因鼻外伤行鼻骨CT检查并最终确诊为外鼻骨折的患者60例,于计算机PACS系统上对该组患者的CT影像学资料进行观察及测量。结果：60例鼻外伤患者中共90侧出现外鼻骨折,其中鼻骨骨折58侧（64．4％）,上颌骨额突骨折16侧（17．8％）,二者同时骨折16侧（17．8％）。60例患者中,30例为单侧外鼻骨折,其中伴外伤性鼻中隔偏曲14例,占46．7％;30例为双侧外鼻骨折,伴外伤性鼻中隔偏曲26例,占86．7％;二者差异有统计学意义（P〈O．01）。骨折仅累及鼻骨或上颌骨额突者24例,伴外伤性鼻中隔偏曲11例,占45．8％;骨折同时累及鼻骨和上颌骨额突者36例,伴外伤性鼻中隔偏曲29例,占80．6％;二者差异有统计学意义（P〈O．01）。外鼻骨折分型：I型（单侧鼻骨折）16例,其中Ia型（鼻骨或上颌骨额突骨折）15例（25．0％）,Ib型（鼻骨及上颌骨额突均骨折）1例（1.7％）;Ⅱ型（双侧外鼻骨折）4例,其中Ⅱa型（鼻骨或上颌骨额突骨折）2例（3．3％）,Ⅱb型（鼻骨及上颌骨额突均骨折）2例（3．3％）;Ⅲ型（伴外伤性鼻中隔偏曲）40例（66．7％）。结论：外鼻骨折患者中伴有外伤性鼻中隔偏曲的比例较高,对症状较重或对外形有较高需求的患者,应于骨折1个月内同时行鼻内镜下外鼻整复术及鼻中隔偏曲矫正术,可以得到较满意的效果。     

Nasal airflow receptors: the relative importance of temperature and tactile stimulation

The receptors responsible for the nasal sensation of airflow have not been identified with certainty. Although both mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors have been implicated, evidence suggests that the nose is more sensitive to cold air than to air at body temperature. The present study was designed to investigate the relationship between the velocity and the temperature of an airjet as regards its ability to stimulate the nasal lining. Both the nasal vestibule and the nasal cavum are more sensitive to cold air than to air at mean intranasal temperature (P < 0.001). A similar effect is seen with warm air which is as stimulating as cold air. The nasal vestibule is twice as sensitive as the nasal cavum to an airjet at mean intranasal temperature (P < 0.001). It is concluded that the nasal vestible is very sensitive to the tactile stimulation of an airjet. This effect is highly temperature dependent being much more pronounced for air temperatures above or below the mean intranasal temperature. The temperature effect is relatively more important in the nasal cavum which is very much less sensitive to stimulation than the vestibule.     

Analysis of rhinomanometric data based upon a model of nasal airflow and logarithmic transformation of the data

Estimation of nasal airflow, flow asymmetry and nasal valve stiffness was performed using anterior rhinomanometry in a group of 12 normal subjects and a group of 12 patients suffering from nasal obstruction. The method, based upon a simplified mathematical model of nasal airflow and utilizing logarithmic transformation of inspiratory pressure and flow data, improved the sensitivity and specificity of rhinomanometry and gave a more comprehensive index of nasal function.     

内镜鼻窦手术一期行鼻中隔黏膜下切除182例临床分析

目的 探讨内镜鼻窦手术一期行鼻中隔黏膜下切除术的方法及疗效。方法 对222例内镜鼻窦手术中182例伴鼻中隔偏曲患者一期行鼻中隔黏膜下切除术。结果 经随访6个月～2年，全部病例经门诊内镜检查，无如鼻中隔穿孔、鼻中隔血肿、脓肿和鼻腔粘连等严重并发症；总有效率100％。结论 临床实践证明：内镜鼻窦手术一期行鼻中隔黏膜下切除容易操作，对治疗鼻窦疾病疗效显著。     

The effect of cold water immersion on the nasal mucosa

The response of the nasal mucosa to cold water immersion is not well known. We have attempted to document this response in normal individuals. Seventeen individuals with no history of nasal disease or allergy were studied. All subjects were asked to perform sustained cold water (15°C) immersion of their hand and forearm on the side of the obstructed nostril for a period of 5 min. The nasal cross-sectional area was measured on both sides of the nose using an acoustic rhinometer. The individuals were then rested for at least 30 min and the test repeated with immersion of the opposite hand. There was a significant fall in nasal cross-sectional area on the side of immersion (median change = 0.32 cm², P= 0.0003) with a significant rise in nasal cross-sectional area on the none test side (median change = 0.35 cm², P= 0.0003). There were no significant differences between these results and those obtained by immersion on the opposite side. The results indicate that cold water immersion produces nasal obstruction and that both afferent and efferent arms of this reflex are side-specific.     

Role of Vascular Reflex in Nasal Mucosal Swelling in Nasal Allergy

Objective: In patients with nasal allergy, antigen challenge on the unilateral nasal mucosa results in nasal secretion not only in the ipsilateral but also in the contralateral nasal cavities that can be inhibited almost completely by premedication with atropine sulfate. The present study was performed to elucidate if centrally mediated vascular reflex induced by antigen challenge plays a role in nasal mucosal swelling in subjects with nasal allergy. Methods: Variations of mucosal swelling and mucosal blood flow in the ipsilateral and the contralateral nasal cavities after unilateral antigen challenge were evaluated by acoustic rhinometry and laser Doppler flowmetry in 20 patients with perennial nasal allergy. Results: Unilateral antigen challenge caused ipsilateral and contralateral nasal mucosal swelling in 17 and 13 patients, respectively. Incidence of contralateral nasal mucosal swelling after unilateral antigen challenge was significantly higher compared with that after control disc challenge (P < .001). In 10 patients in whom unilateral antigen challenge caused bilateral nasal mucosal swelling, significant swelling of the nasal mucosa lasted for more than 30 minutes in the ipsilateral nasal cavity after antigen challenge compared with only 15 minutes in the contralateral nasal cavity. Peak values of contralateral mucosal swelling were 45.3% of those of ipsilateral nasal mucosa. Conclusions: Centrally mediated vascular reflex is partially involved in the onset of nasal mucosal swelling observed after antigen challenge in subjects with nasal allergy. However, nasal mucosal swelling that persists and proceeds even 20 minutes after antigen challenge is caused by the direct effects of chemical mediators on the nasal vasculature.