Metabotropic glutamate receptor agonists reduce glutamate release from cultured astrocytes

Astrocytes are thought to control extracellular glutamate concentrations ([Glu]_o) in the brain, thereby protecting neurons from excitotoxic injury. We investigated the effects of metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonists on glutamate transport and [Glu]_o in primary hippocampal astrocytic cultures. Acute or chronic exposure of astrocytes to the mGluR agonist trans‐1‐aminocyclopentane‐1,3‐dicarboxylic acid (trans‐ACPD) or its active isomer 1S,3R‐ACPD reduced [Glu]_o in a time‐ and dose‐dependent manner (44.5 ± 3.6% reductions of [Glu]_o in astrocytes from P0–P10 rats and 65.9 ± 4.1 % from rats P20 by 100 μM 1S,3R‐ACPD, EC₅₀ ∼ 5 μM). 1S,3R‐ACPD effects developed slowly (median effective at ∼60 min) and persisted for several hours after agonist removal. ACPD‐pretreated astrocytes established lower steady‐state [Glu]_o levels. ACPD effects persisted in the presence of the glutamate uptake inhibitors D ,L ‐threo‐β‐hydroxyaspartate (THA) and L ‐trans‐pyrrolidine‐2,4‐dicarboxylate (PDC) but were impaired by disruption of the transmembrane Na⁺, K⁺, or H⁺ gradients. In addition, 1S,3R‐ACPD had no effects on intracellular glutamate content and did not directly block glutamate transport. Furthermore, ACPD effects could be mimicked by glutamate per se and several other compounds presumed to be mGluR agonists, although (S)‐3,5‐dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG), (2S,2R,3R)‐2‐(2,3‐dicarboxycyclopropyl)glycine (DCG‐IV), and L ‐(+)‐2‐amino‐4‐phosphonobutyric acid (L ‐AP4) were without effect. These data suggest that glutamate and certain mGluR agonists may regulate [Glu]_o by modulating the transmembrane equilibrium of glutamate transport, especially by attenuating glutamate release. GLIA 25:270–281, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Nitric oxide induces calcium-dependent release of [3H]dopamine release from striatal slices

Hydroxylamine (0.01–30 mM), a nitric oxide (NO) generator, produced a concentration-dependent release of [³H]dopamine ([³H]DA) from rat striatal slices. Hemoglobin (10 μM), a NO scavenger, reduced basal [³H]DA release and blocked hydroxylamine (100 μM)-stimulated [³H]DA efflux. Tetrodotoxin (0.5 μM) had no significant effect. Sodium cyanide was used as a model compound to test the possibility that NO acted through blockade of mitochondrial electron transport. Calcium-free experimental buffer (1 mM EGTA) reduced basal release and the hydroxylamine response, while sodium cyanide-induced release did not change under these experimental conditions. Cadmium (200 μM), a non-selective inhibitor of voltage-dependent calcium channels, reduced the hydroxylamine response by 69%. Methylene blue (10 μM), an inhibitor of guanylate cyclase, produced a 3-fold increase in the basal release but had no significant effect on the hydroxylamine response. These data suggest that NO induces calcium-dependent [³H]DA release from the striatum via a mechanism which is independent of blockade of electron transport or activation of guanylate cyclase. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

ATP signaling is deficient in cultured Pannexin1-null mouse astrocytes

Pannexins (Panx1, 2, and 3) comprise a group of proteins expressed in vertebrates that share weak yet significant sequence homology with the invertebrate gap junction proteins, the innexins. In contrast to the other vertebrate gap junction protein family (connexin), pannexins do not form intercellular channels, but at least Panx1 forms nonjunctional plasma membrane channels. Panx1 is ubiquitously expressed and has been shown to form large conductance (500 pS) channels that are voltage dependent, mechanosensitive, and permeable to relatively large molecules such as ATP. Pharmacological and knockdown approaches have indicated that Panx1 is the molecular substrate for the so-called "hemichannel" originally attributed to connexin43 and that Panx1 is the pore-forming unit of the P2X(7) receptor. Here, we describe, for the first time, conductance and permeability properties of Panx1-null astrocytes. The electrophysiological and fluorescence imaging analyses performed on these cells fully support our previous pharmacological and Panx1 knockdown studies that showed profoundly lower dye uptake and ATP release than wild-type untreated astrocytes. As a consequence of decreased ATP paracrine signaling, intercellular calcium wave spread is altered in Panx1-null astrocytes. Moreover, we found that in astrocytes as in Panx1-expressing oocytes, elevated extracellular K(+) activates Panx1 channels independently of membrane potential. Thus, on the basis of our present findings and our previous report, we propose that Panx1 channels serve as K(+) sensors for changes in the extracellular milieu such as those occurring under pathological conditions.     

高渗刺激引起培养的大鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞和C6细胞合成并释放谷氨酸

目的观察高渗刺激对培养的大鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞或C6细胞合成、释放谷氨酸的影响。方法获取一日龄SD大鼠下丘脑组织，进行星形胶质细胞培养、纯化和鉴定。培养细胞随机分五组：（1）等渗组：用新鲜等渗培养液置换原先的培养液，将细胞分成5个亚组，分别孵育1、3、5、10和15min。（2）高渗组：用320mosMNaCl高渗溶液置换原先的培养液，将细胞分成5个亚组，分别孵育1、3、5、10和15min。（3）甘伯酸（carbenoxolone，CBX，一种缝隙连接阻断剂）＋等渗组和（4）CBX＋高渗组：用含有CBX（终浓度为100mmol／L）的等渗培养液作用1h，后分别用等渗或高渗培养液置换出原培养液，将细胞分成5个亚组，分别孵育1、3、5、10和15min。（5）Ca2＋高渗组：用含有Ca2＋（1000μmol／L）的等渗培养液作用1h，后用高渗培养液置换出原培养液，将细胞分成5个亚组，分别孵育1、3、5、10和15min。每个亚组5个培养皿。收集各组的细胞，进行抗谷氨酸和抗胶质原纤维酸性蛋白（Glial fibrillary acidic protein，GFAP）的双重免疫荧光染色，Confocal显微镜观察。用反相高效液相色谱荧光测定法测定细胞培养液中谷氨酸的含量。培养的C6细胞分为四组：等渗组，高渗组，CBX＋等渗组和CBX＋高渗组，用于流式细胞仪（flowcytometry，FCM）定量检测细胞内谷氨酸的含量。结果星形胶质细胞内抗GFAP染色的荧光强度在五组问无明显差异。星形胶质细胞内抗谷氨酸染色的荧光强度在等渗组中各时间点无明显变化，高渗组中在刺激1min后表达增加，5min达到高峰，15min恢复到正常。CBX＋高渗组的抗谷氨酸染色荧光强度明显高于CBX＋等渗组和等渗组，一直维持到15min不下降。培养基中的谷氨酸浓度在等渗组各时间点无明显变化，高渗组中谷氨酸浓度从5min到15min明显增加。Ca2＋高渗组和CBX＋高渗组中?     

高渗刺激引起培养的大鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞和C6细胞合成并释放谷氨酸

目的 观察高渗刺激对培养的大鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞或C6细胞合成、释放谷氨酸的影响.方法 获取一日龄SD大鼠下丘脑组织,进行星形胶质细胞培养、纯化和鉴定.培养细胞随机分五组:(1)等渗组:用新鲜等渗培养液置换原先的培养液,将细胞分成5个亚组,分别孵育1、3、5、10和15 min.(2)高渗组:用320 mosMNaCl高渗溶液置换原先的培养液,将细胞分成5个亚组,分别孵育1、3、5、10和15 min.(3)甘伯酸(carbenoxolone,CBX,一种缝隙连接阻断剂) 等渗组和(4)CBX 高渗组:用含有CBX(终浓度为100 mmol/L)的等渗培养液作用1 h,后分别用等渗或高渗培养液置换出原培养液,将细胞分成5个亚组,分别孵育1、3、5、10和15 min.(5)Ca2 高渗组:用含有Ca2 (1 000μmol/L)的等渗培养液作用1 h,后用高渗培养液置换出原培养液,将细胞分成5个亚组;分别孵育1、3、5、10和15 min.每个亚组5个培养皿.收集各组的细胞,进行抗谷氨酸和抗胶质原纤维酸性蛋白(Glial fibrillary acidic protein,GFAP)的双重免疫荧光染色,Confocal显微镜观察.用反相高效液相色谱荧光测定法测定细胞培养液中谷氨酸的含量.培养的C6细胞分为四组:等渗组,高渗组,CBX 等渗组和CBX 高渗组,用于流式细胞仪(flow cytometry,FCM)定量检测细胞内谷氨酸的含量.结果 星形胶质细胞内抗GFAP染色的荧光强度在五组间无明显差异.星彤胶质细胞内抗谷氨酸染色的荧光强度在等渗组中各时间点无明显变化,高渗组中在刺激1 min后表达增加,5 min达到高峰,15 min恢复到正常.CBX 高渗组的抗谷氨酸染色荧光强度明显高于CBX 等渗组和等渗组,一直维持到15 min不下降.培养基中的谷氨酸浓度在等渗组各时间点无明显变化,高渗组中谷氨酸浓度从5 min到15 min明显增加.Ca2 高渗组和CBX 高渗组中,培养基中谷氨酸浓度明显低于高渗组,各时间点之间没有明显变化.FCM测定的结果表明高渗或CBX 高渗刺激引起C6细胞内谷氨酸的水平明显上调.结论 高渗刺激可以激发培养的大鼠下丘脑星形胶质细胞合成、释放谷氨酸,CBX不能抑制其合成,但可阻断其释放.     

Ammonia triggers exocytotic release of L‐glutamate from cultured rat astrocytes

Ammonia toxicity to the brain involves NMDA receptor overactivation and glutamate excitotoxicity. The mechanisms underlying glutamate release from astrocytes in response to ammonia were addressed in this study. In cultured rat astrocytes, glutamate immunoreactivity (IR) was punctate and partly colocalized with transfected VAMP2‐YFP. NH₄Cl (5 mmol/L) and hypoosmotic exposure (205 mosmol/L) induced a rapid colchicine‐sensitive loss of cellular glutamate and glutamate appearance in the extracellular space. The NH₄Cl‐induced glutamate loss from astrocytes was strongly blunted after transfection of the cells with VAMP2 siRNA. Ammonia‐induced exocytosis of VAMP2‐YFP expressing vesicles was shown by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF‐M). Glutamate exocytosis in response to ammonia was sensitive to chelation of Ca²⁺, cyclooxygenase inhibition by indomethacin and colchicine. Ammonia triggered the rapid formation of prostanoids, which were identified as upstream events in ammonia‐induced glutamate exocytosis. Also, addition of prostaglandin E₂ or of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‐α triggered glutamate exocytosis. Inhibition of ammonia‐induced glutamate exocytosis after transfection of VAMP2 siRNA inhibited ammonia‐induced RNA oxidation. It is concluded that ammonia triggers a prostanoid‐ and Ca²⁺‐dependent glutamate exocytosis, which is essential for induction of ammonia‐induced RNA oxidation. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Cloning and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase from rat astrocytes

In primary cultures of rat astroglial cells exposure to bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) causes induction of a Ca²⁺-independent form of the nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzyme. We have now cloned the mRNA encoding astroglial iNOS using a combination of cDNA library screening and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification with degenerate oligonucleotides directed against conserved regions of all NOS enzymes. The sequence of astroglial iNOS cDNA is highly similar to the mouse macrophage sequence, having an overall homology of 92% at the DNA level and 93% at the protein level. As in other NOSs, canonical binding sites for redox cofactors are present. The 3′-untranslated region displays 4 consensus AU-pentamers, 2 polyadenylation sites, and terminates in a stretch of 17 adenosine residues. In situ hybridization studies with LPS-treated astrocyte cultures demonstrated the presence of iNOS mRNA in the majority of astroglial cells, identified by antibody staining to the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). PCR analysis showed that LPS stimulated synthesis of astrocyte iNOS mRNA, which was detected as early as 2 hr after exposure to LPS, peaked at 4 hr, and slowly declined over the next 20 hr. These results confirm that astrocytes can express iNOS and provide tools for the subsequent analysis of iNOS gene expression in rodent brain © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Axons and astrocytes release ATP and glutamate to evoke calcium signals in NG2‐glia

NG2‐glia are an abundant population of cells in the adult CNS that make up a novel glial cell type. Here, we have examined calcium signals in NG2‐glia identified by expression of the fluorescent protein DsRed under the control of the NG2 promoter in the white matter of the mouse optic nerve. We focused on mice aged postnatal day (P)12–16, after the main period of oligodendrocyte generation. Using fluo‐4 and fura‐2 calcium imaging in isolated intact nerves, we show that glutamate and ATP evoke Ca²⁺ signals in NG2‐glia in situ, acting on AMPA‐type glutamate receptors and P2Y₁ and P2X₇ purine receptors; NMDA evoked a weak Ca²⁺ signal in a small proportion of NG2‐glia. We show that axonal action potentials and mechanical stimulation of astrocytes effect the release of glutamate and ATP to act on NG2‐glia; ATP alone evokes robust Ca²⁺ signals, whereas glutamate did not unless AMPA receptor desensitization was blocked with cyclothiazide. We identify the precise contacts that NG2‐glia form with axons at nodes of Ranvier, and the intricate bipartite sheaths formed between the processes of NG2‐glia and astrocytes. In addition, we provide evidence that NG2‐glia express synaptophysin, indicating they have mechanisms for transmitting as well as receiving signals. This study places NG2‐glia within a neuron‐glial network, and identifies roles for glutamate and ATP in communication with astrocytes as well as axons. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Cortical ablation induces a spreading calcium-dependent, secondary pathogenesis which can be reduced by inhibiting calpain

Many forms of acute brain injury are associated with a secondary, glutamate- and calcium-dependent cascade which greatly exacerbates the final damage. The calcium-dependent protease, calpain, has been implicated as an important variable in this pathogenic process. The present studies tested (i) if similar secondary degeneration occurs following surgical ablation of a discrete area within rat visual cortex, (ii) if activation of calpain contributes to the secondary degeneration by spreading into areas adjacent to the ablation, and (iii) if blocking calpain's proteolytic effects reduces the secondary degeneration attendant to the lesion. Antibodies selective for a protein fragment specifically generated by calpain were used to map areas in which the protease had been activated. Labeling was present 5 min after surgery in a narrow zone surrounding the ablated region. The volume of the immunopositive staining increased twofold within 24 h and fivefold by 48 h, at which time it was equivalent in size to the original lesion. This staining pattern significantly decreased in size at 5 days postsurgery. Application of calpain inhibitors to the ablation site immediately after surgery reduced the spread of calpain activation by approximately 80%. Following cortical ablation, the volume of the lateral geniculate nucleus ipsilateral to the cortical ablation shrank by 46 +/- 3% in control rats but only by 31 +/- 5% in animals given the calpain inhibitors. These results establish that (i) a secondary degenerative cascade is unleashed following discrete cortical surgery which expands into brain areas clearly outside the initial perturbation site, (ii) the gradual expansion of calpain activation contributes to the underlying secondary pathology, and (iii) blocking calpain activity substantially reduces atrophy in areas anatomically connected, but physically distal to the damaged zone. The possible utility of topical applications of calpain inhibitors, or analogously acting drugs, in minimizing the secondary effects of brain surgery is discussed.     

L-glutamate-stimulated taurine release from rat cerebral cultured astrocytes

We characterized L-glutamate-stimulated taurine release from cultured astrocytes prepared from rat cerebrum. L-glutamate (0.5 mM) stimulated release of ³H-labeled and endogenous taurine, where the rate of release reached maximum in 40 min. L-glutamate increased astrocytic volume [³H-O-methyl-D-glucose (³H-OMG) space] with a similar time course to ³H-taurine release. Quisqualate, L-aspartate, DL-homocysteate, and L-cysteate increased both astrocytic ³H-OMG space and ³H-taurine release from cultured astrocytes, while kainate (1 mM) stimulated ³H-taurine release without affecting astrocytic volume. N-methyl-D-aspartate had no effect on ³H-taurine release and astrocytic volume. Treatment of astrocytes with dibutyryl cAMP reduced the effect of kainate on ³H-taurine release. L-glutamate-stimulated ³H-taurine release was attenuated by removal of extracellular Cl^? and in hyperosmotic medium, which prevented L-glutamate-induced increase in ³H-OMG space of cultured astrocytes. These results indicate that L-glutamate stimulates taurine release from astrocytes through swelling-triggered mechanisms and that kainate causes the release through volume-independent mechanisms. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Thiamine deficiency results in downregulation of the GLAST glutamate transporter in cultured astrocytes

Pyrithiamine-induced thiamine deficiency (TD) is a well-established model of Wernicke's encephalopathy in which a glutamate-mediated excitotoxic mechanism may play an important role in determining selective vulnerability. In order to examine this possibility, cultured astrocytes were exposed to TD and effects on glutamate transport and metabolic function were studied. TD led to decreases in cellular levels of thiamine and thiamine diphosphate (TDP) after 24 h of treatment and decreased activities of the TDP-dependent enzymes alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and transketolase after 4 and 7 days, respectively. TD treatment for 10 days led to a reversible decrease in the uptake of [(3)H]-D-aspartate, a nonmetabolizable analogue of glutamate. Kinetic analysis revealed that the uptake inhibition was caused by a 47% decrease in the V(max) for uptake of [(3)H]-D-aspartate, with no change in the K(m) value. Immunoblotting showed that this decrease in uptake was due to an 81% downregulation of the astrocyte-specific GLAST glutamate transporter. Loss of uptake activity and GLAST protein were blocked by treatment with the protein kinase C inhibitor H7, while exposure to DCG IV, a group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonist, resulted in improvement of [(3)H]-D-aspartate uptake and a partial reversal of transporter downregulation. These results are consistent with our recent in vivo findings of a loss of astrocytic glutamate transporters in TD and provide evidence that TD conditions may increase phosphorylation of GLAST, contributing to its downregulation. In addition, manipulation of group II mGluR activity may provide an important strategy in the treatment of this disorder.     

Circadian rhythms of extracellular ATP accumulation in suprachiasmatic nucleus cells and cultured astrocytes

The master circadian pacemaker located within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the mammalian brain controls system-level rhythms in animal physiology. Specific SCN outputs synchronize circadian physiological rhythms in other brain regions. Within the SCN, communication among neural cells provides for the coordination of autonomous cellular oscillations into ensemble rhythms. ATP is a neural transmitter involved in local communication among astrocytes and between astrocytes and neurons. Using a luciferin–luciferase chemiluminescence assay, we have demonstrated that ATP levels fluctuate rhythmically within both SCN2.2 cell cultures and the rat SCN in vivo . SCN2.2 cells generated circadian oscillations in both the production and extracellular accumulation of ATP. Circadian fluctuations in ATP accumulation persisted with an average period ( τ ) of 23.7 h in untreated as well as vehicle-treated and forskolin-treated SCN2.2 cells, indicating that treatment with an inductive stimulus is not necessary to propagate these rhythms. ATP levels in the rat SCN in vivo were marked by rhythmic variation during exposure to 12 h of light and 12 h of dark or constant darkness, with peak accumulation occurring during the latter half of the dark phase or subjective night. Primary cultures of cortical astrocytes similarly expressed circadian oscillations in extracellular ATP accumulation that persisted for multiple cycles with periods of about 23 h. These results suggest that circadian oscillations in extracellular ATP levels represent a physiological output of the mammalian cellular clock, common to the SCN pacemaker and astrocytes from at least some brain regions, and thus may provide a mechanism for clock control of gliotransmission between astrocytes and to neurons.     

Agmatine induces glutamate release and cell death in cultured rat cerebellar granule neurons

We investigated the effect of agmatine on cell viability of rat cerebellar granule neurons in a high-K+ (27.5 mM) medium. Exposure of cultured rat cerebellar granule neurons to agmatine (200-800 microM) resulted in a significant decrease in cell viability. Agmatine-induced neuronal death began to occur 6-12 h after addition, and gradually progressed. The agmatine neurotoxicity was attenuated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists and by enzymatic degradation of L-glutamate with glutamic pyruvic transaminase. Furthermore, a significant increase in extracellular L-glutamate concentration was detected before cell death occurred. In addition, agmatine-induced glutamate release and cell death were both blocked by pretreatment with botulinum toxin C, which is known to specifically inhibit the exocytosis. The agmatine neurotoxicity was not observed when extracellular K+ concentration was lower (10 mM). These results suggest that agmatine induces glutamate release through the exocytosis and thereby causes NMDA receptor-mediated neuronal death in conditions in which extracellular K+ concentrations are elevated.     

Acute excitotoxic injury induces expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and its receptor, CCR2, in neonatal rat brain

Chemokines are a family of structurally related cytokines that activate and recruit leukocytes into areas of inflammation. The "CC" chemokine, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 may regulate the microglia/monocyte response to acute brain injury. Recent studies have documented increased expression of MCP-1 in diverse acute and chronic experimental brain injury models; in contrast, there is little information regarding expression of the MCP-1 receptor, CCR2, in the brain. In the neonatal rat brain, acute excitotoxic injury elicits a rapid and intense microglial response. To determine if MCP-1 could be a regulator of this response, we evaluated the impact of excitotoxic injury on MCP-1 and CCR2 expression in the neonatal rat brain. We used a reproducible model of focal excitotoxic brain injury elicited by intrahippocampal injection of NMDA (10 nmol) in 7-day-old rats, to examine injury-induced alterations in MCP-1 and CCR2 expression. RT-PCR assays demonstrated rapid stimulation of both MCP-1 and CCR2 mRNA expression. MCP-1 protein content, measured by ELISA in tissue extracts, increased >30-fold in lesioned tissue 8-12 h after lesioning. CCR2 protein was also detectable in tissue extracts. Double-immunofluorescent labeling enabled localization of CCR2 both to activated microglia/monocytes in the corpus callosum adjacent to the lesioned hippocampus and subsequently in microglia/monocytes infiltrating the pyramidal cell layer of the lesioned hippocampus. These results demonstrate that in the neonatal brain, acute excitotoxic injury stimulates expression of both MCP-1 and its receptor, CCR2, and suggests that MCP-1 regulates the microglial/monocyte response to acute brain injury.     

Modulation of calcium-dependent and -independent components of veratridine-evoked release of glutamate from rat cerebellum

The entry of Ca²⁺ into the presynaptic neuronal terminal is considered to be a prerequisite for exocytosis. However, reports suggest that a Ca²⁺-independent component of release can exist for some neurotransmitters. In this study we have used veratridine-stimulated release of glutamate from rat cerebellar slices to investigate Ca²⁺-dependent and -independent release. A 1-min pulse of veratridine (10 μM) induced release of glutamate in both Ca²⁺-replete and Ca²⁺-free ACSF. Both modes of release, however, could be elicited in a sequential manner following a single application of veratridine in Ca²⁺-free ACSF, with return to Ca²⁺-replete conditions 5 min post-pulse. This separation permitted the modulation of either, or both, phases of release. Apamin and dihydrokainate had little effect on Ca²⁺-independent release but produced enhancement of the Ca²⁺-dependent phase. Tetrodotoxin abolished both phases of release when applied with the veratridine pulse, but had no effect on the Ca²⁺-dependent phase alone. The Ca²⁺-dependent phase was partially sensitive to Co²⁺, although the Ca²⁺ channel blockers verapamil, amiloride, ω-conotoxin and ruthenium red were ineffective, suggesting a lack of involvement of L-, N- or T-type channels. The possible mechanisms mediating the Ca²⁺-dependent and -independent components of endogenous glutamate release from cerebellar slices are discussed.     

Cytokine production, glutamate release and cell death in rat cultured astrocytes treated with unconjugated bilirubin and LPS

In hyperbilirubinemic newborns, sepsis is considered a risk factor for kernicterus. Evidence shows that injury to astrocytes triggers cytokine release. We examined the effects of unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) alone, or in combination with LPS, on the release of glutamate and cytokines from astrocytes in conditions inducing less than 10% of cell death. UCB leads to an increase of extracellular glutamate and highly enhances the release of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta, while inhibiting the production of IL-6. LPS potentiates immunostimulatory properties of UCB. These results point out the role of cytokines and provide a basis for the significance of sepsis in UCB encephalopathy.     

Self-induced accumulation of glutamate in striatal astrocytes and basal ganglia excitotoxicity

Excitotoxicity induced by high levels of extracellular glutamate (GLU) has been proposed as a cause of cell degeneration in basal ganglia disorders. This phenomenon is normally prevented by the astrocytic GLU‐uptake and the GLU‐catabolization to less dangerous molecules. However, high‐GLU can induce reactive gliosis which could change the neuroprotective role of astrocytes. The striatal astrocyte response to high GLU was studied here in an in vivo rat preparation. The transient striatal perfusion of GLU (1 h) by reverse microdialysis induced complex reactive gliosis which persisted for weeks and which was different for radial‐like glia, protoplasmic astrocytes and fibrous astrocytes. This gliosis was accompanied by a persistent cytosolic accumulation of GLU (immunofluorescence quantified by confocal microscope), which persisted for weeks (self‐induced glutamate accumulation), and which was associated to a selective decrease of glutamine synthetase activity. This massive and persistent self‐induced glutamate accumulation in striatal astrocytes could be an additional factor for the GLU‐induced excitotoxicity, which has been implicated in the progression of different basal ganglia disorders. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Endothelins decrease the expression of aquaporins and plasma membrane water permeability in cultured rat astrocytes

Some of the aquaporins (AQPs), a family of water channel proteins, are expressed in astrocytes. The expression of astrocytic AQPs is altered after brain insults, such as ischemia and head trauma. However, little is known about the regulation of AQP expressions. Endothelins (ETs), which are vasoconstrictor peptides, regulate several pathophysiological responses of astrocytes. In this study, the effects of ETs on AQP expressions and plasma membrane water permeability were examined in cultured rat astrocytes. Determination of AQP mRNA copy numbers revealed that AQP1 and AQP4 were expressed prominently in cultured astrocytes. ET-1 (100 nM) and Ala1,3,11,1?-ET-1 (an ETB receptor agonist, 50 nM) decreased the AQP4 and AQP9 mRNA levels in cultured astrocytes, but the AQP1, -3, -5, and -8 mRNA levels remained unchanged. BQ788, an ETB receptor antagonist, reduced the effects of ET-1 on astrocytic AQP mRNAs, whereas FR139317, an ETA antagonist, had no effect. Immunoblot analyses revealed that treatment with ET-1 decreased the protein contents of AQP4 and AQP9 in both total cell lysates and plasma membrane fractions of cultured astrocytes. ET-1 and Ala1,3,11,1?-ET-1 decreased hypoosmolarity-induced water influxes into cultured astrocytes. In the presence of 30 μM Hg2+, which inhibits water movement through AQP1 and AQP9, the hypoosmolarity-induced water influxes were reduced. Phloretin, an inhibitor of AQP9, did not greatly affect the water influxes. The ET-induced decreases in water influxes were obtained in the presence of Hg2+ and phloretin. These results suggest that ET is a factor that regulates AQP expressions and water permeability in astrocytes.     

Identification of neuropeptide Y receptors in cultured astrocytes from neonatal rat brain

Specific binding sites for neuropeptide Y could be demonstrated in primary cultures of astrocytes from neonatal rat brain. Neuropeptide Y binding was saturable, reversible, and temperature dependent as revealed by saturation studies and kinetic experiments. Scatchard analysis of equilibrium binding data indicated a single population of high-affinity binding sites with respective K_D and B_max values of 0.43 nM and 6.9 fmol/2.7 × 10⁵ cells. Physiological responses induced by neuropeptide Y could be detected in a distinct subpopulation of cultured astrocytes on the basis of two criteria: (1) electrophysiological responses and (2) single cell measurements of changes in [Ca²⁺]_i. In that fraction of cells responding (20–70%, varying among cultures from different preparations), brief application of neuropeptide Y led to a membrane potential depolarization, lasting several minutes. When the membrane was clamped close to the resting membrane potential using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique, neuropeptide Y induced an inward current with a similar time course as the neuropeptide Y-induced membrane depolarization. As detected by single cell microfluorimetric (fura-2) measurements neuropeptide Y induced an increase of [Ca²⁺]_i which was caused by the entry of extracellular Ca²⁺. Both the [Ca²⁺]_i increase and the electrophysiological responses were unaffected by pretreatment of the astrocytes with pertussis toxin. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.