Pectoralis major muscle flap in head and neck reconstruction

Pectoralis major muscle flaps have rarely been used on their own for head and neck reconstruction. Some of the problems experienced with myocutaneous flaps can be avoided by the judicious use of muscle flaps. These include suture line separation, excessive bulk, hair growth from the flap, and alteration of breast position. In contrast to the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap, the pectoralis major muscle flap is light and pliable. When it is employed for reconstruction in the oral cavity, oropharynx, or hypopharynx, it can be covered by a "quilted" skin graft or used on its own. We believe that pectoralis major muscle flaps provide a valuable alternative to the more bulky myocutaneous flaps in head and neck reconstruction.     

Supraclavicular flap in head and neck reconstruction: experience in 50 consecutive patients

The supraclavicular flap (SCF) is a fasciocutaneous flap used to cover head, oral, and neck region defects after tumor resection. Its main vascular supply is the supraclavicular artery and accompanying veins and it can be harvested as a vascularised pedicled flap. The SCF serves as an excellent outer skin cover as well as a good inner mucosal lining after oral cavity and head-neck tumor resections. The flap has a wide arc of rotation and matches the skin colour and texture of the face and neck. Between March 2006 and March 2011, the pedicled supraclavicular flap was used for reconstruction in 50 consecutive patients after head and neck tumor resections and certain benign conditions in a tertiary university hospital setting. The flaps were tunnelized under the neck skin to cover the external cervicofacial defects or passed medial to the mandible to give an inner epithelial lining after the oral cavity and oropharyngeal tumor excision. Forty-four of the 50 patients had 100% flap survival with excellent wound healing. All the flaps were harvested in less than 1 h. There were four cases of distal tip desquamation and two patients had complete flap necrosis. Distal flap desquamation was observed in SCFs used for resurfacing the external skin defects after oral cavity tumor ablation and needed only conservative treatment measures. Total flap failure was encountered in two patients who had failed in previous chemoradiotherapy for squamous cell cancer of the floor of mouth and tonsil, respectively, and the SCF was used in mucosal defect closure after tumor ablation. The benefits of a pedicled fasciocutaneous supraclavicular flap are clear; it is thin, reliable, easy, and quick to harvest. In head, face and neck reconstructions, it is a good alternative to free fasciocutaneous flaps, regional pedicled myocutaneous flaps, and the deltopectoral flap.     

下斜方肌皮瓣修复头颈部肿瘤术后组织缺损

目的 探讨下斜方肌皮瓣的解剖基础和该皮瓣在头颈部肿瘤切除术后大型组织缺损修复重建中的作用.方法 回顾性分析中山大学附属第二医院颅颌面外科2000年1月-2004年1月间应用下斜方肌皮瓣对头颈部恶性肿瘤根治性切除后的缺损进行同期修复患者24例,男14例,女10例;年龄35～76岁,中位年龄54岁.其中舌癌10例,颊癌4例,口底癌2例,腮腺癌1例,口咽癌2例,牙龈癌3例,上颌窦癌1例,右颧、额部恶性肿瘤1例;15例为初发恶性肿瘤,9例为复发恶性肿瘤;皮瓣最小为8 cm×7 cm,最大为12 cm×10 cm.结果 21例患者术后皮瓣全部存活,3例皮瓣远端部分坏死,供区Ⅰ期愈合.术后随访6～24个月,全部皮瓣无坏死,头颈部形态功能满意.结论 下斜方肌皮瓣具有血管蒂长、旋转度大,皮瓣薄而柔软,操作简便,适合同期修复头颈部术后较大的缺损.     

The pectoralis myocutaneous flap for salvage of necrotic wounds

The authors have utilized six pectoralis major myocutaneous flaps in attempts to salvage extensive necrotic wounds of the pharynx and neck. The flap was employed in the following situations: massive necrosis of the entire neck skin with both carotid artery systems exposed, radiation necrosis of the neck skin with exposure of carotid artery, dehiscence of gastric pull-up from pharynx with resultant carotid exposure, failed trapezius flap in a radionecrotic oral cavity, and two cases of pharyngocutaneous fistula with extensive soft tissue necrosis. These flaps achieved healing in all cases. One death occurred 3 weeks following complete cutaneous healing secondary to a ruptured carotid pseudoaneurysm. One flap underwent total skin loss but the entirety of the muscle survived and the fistula was successfully closed with the back of the muscle being subsequently skin grafted. One case of dehiscence of the flap from oral mucosa resulted in a minor exposure of mandible with limited osteoradionecrosis controlled by topical means. This flap has performed extremely well in these precarious and difficult situations that previously may not have been salvageable. It has also been effective in abbreviating the required hospitalization and wound care. We conclude that the pectoralis myocutaneous flap should be the primary choice for the management of extensive postsurgical wound necrosis.     

The trapezius myocutaneous flap. Dependability and limitations

Many reports of the trapezius myocutaneous flap have centered on a single form of the flap. However, three distinct myocutaneous segments, the superior, the lateral island, and the extended island flaps, can be harvested from the trapezius muscle and its overlying skin. Fifty-five patients underwent reconstruction for head and neck defects using 56 trapezius myocutaneous flaps consisting of 28 superior, 24 lateral island, and four extended island flaps. The four vascular supplies of the trapezius muscle are discussed, with emphasis on the variable nature of the transverse cervical and dorsal scapular arteries. Major complications developed in two of 28 superior, five of 24 lateral island, and one of four extended island flaps. The superior flap, although the most dependable, has the most limited range of application. Both the lateral and extended island flaps have a broader range of clinical application, but their usefulness may be limited by previous neck surgery or occult neoplasm in the neck, as well as by the variable vascular supply. Due to the above limitations, 30% of our attempts to utilize the lateral island flap had to be aborted at the time of surgery and an alternate means of reconstruction used. The trapezius myocutaneous flaps are excellent reconstructive tools for selected defects.     

The superior trapezius myocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction.

The superior trapezius myocutaneous flap, based on the paraspinous perforating branches of the intercostal vessels, is generally not a first-line choice for reconstruction of head and neck defects. However, after wound breakdown following radical neck dissection and radiation therapy, the superior trapezius flap is extremely reliable for coverage of exposed major neck vessels. The flap was used in 30 patients undergoing lateral neck reconstruction. All 30 patients had undergone prior neck dissection and all but two had undergone prior radiation therapy. There were no flap failures. The superior trapezius flap is unique among other regional myocutaneous flaps presently in use in that it has a superiorly based pedicle, which reduces the problem of gravitational pull on the suture lines of severely unfavorable recipient beds. Another advantage of using the denervated muscle of this flap is that it imposes no additional functional loss. The deficiencies of this flap are primarily related to its limited arc of rotation, thereby precluding its use when resurfacing defects that extend beyond the midline of the neck. The reliability of the superior trapezius flap after neck dissection can be explained by the angiosome concept. Based on that concept, previous ligation of the transverse cervical vessels during a neck dissection serves to simultaneously stage this flap, thereby improving its reliability and potential surface area available.     

Prevention of hair growth in myocutaneous flap reconstruction

Myocutaneous flaps play a prominent role in the immediate reconstruction of surgical defects following ablative oncologic procedures in the head and neck. Transfer of hair-bearing skin into the reconstructed upper digestive tract can be a major disadvantage associated with the pectoralis major flap. De-epithelialization of skin to the dermal level, removing the majority of skin appendages, can convert a myocutaneous flap to a "myodermal" flap. Platysma myocutaneous and myodermal flaps were grafted into the oral cavity of 13 dogs. Gross and histologic evaluation confirmed decreased hair growth in the experimental myodermal flap. Wound complications and graft survival were similar for both techniques. Diminished hair growth further supports the utility of myodermal flaps in hairy male patients undergoing upper digestive tract reconstruction.     

双岛胸大肌皮瓣在头颈肿瘤切除、重建术中的应用

目的 探讨双岛胸大肌皮瓣在头颈肿瘤术后组织缺损修复重建应用的效果及优点。方法 应用双岛胸大肌皮瓣,对头颈肿瘤术后组织缺损的8例患者进行修复重建。结果 重建后的咽腔无狭窄,颈部皮肤均成活。皮瓣I期愈合7例;皮瓣重建颈部皮肤面边缘轻度坏死1例,经处理后愈合。患者于术后8～12d(平均10d)开始进食;术后14～20d(平均16d)出院。结论 双岛胸大肌皮瓣血供丰富,组织量多,是同时修复头颈肿瘤术后皮肤、黏膜双重缺损的优选方法。     

Role of the island deltopectoral flap in contemporary head and neck reconstruction

OBJECTIVES: The deltopectoral flap (DP) was originally described 40 years ago for head and neck reconstruction. Since that time, use of pedicled myocutaneous flaps and free tissue transfer has supplanted the DP flap as a first-line reconstructive tool. The island DP flap, a variation of the DP flap wherein the skin bridge is de-epithelialized, provides a source of thin and pliable tissue that can be useful for select head and neck reconstruction. The purpose of this review is to assess the utility of the island DP flap in contemporary head and neck reconstruction. METHODS: A retrospective review of 16 consecutive cases utilizing the island DP flap was performed. Indications, complications, and outcome were reviewed in an effort to determine the role of the island DP in contemporary head and neck reconstruction. RESULTS: Sixteen island DP flap procedures were successfully performed in 16 patients for a variety of reconstructions, including esophageal, laryngeal, cutaneous, and pharyngeal defects. The donor skin paddles averaged 22.4 cm2 (range, 14 to 40.8 cm2). There were no recipient site complications; however, there was 1 donor site hematoma that was managed with drainage. In all 16 cases, the island DP flap provided an appropriate source of donor tissue for reconstruction of limited defects of the pharynx, esophagus, and skin of the neck. CONCLUSIONS: The island DP flap is a reliable donor site that provides an excellent source of thin and pliable tissue for limited defects of the head and neck.     

胸肩峰动脉穿支皮瓣修复颈咽部软组织缺损

目的胸肩峰动脉穿支皮瓣（thoracoacromial artery perforator,TAAP）是近年来应用于颈部和咽部组织缺损的新技术,本文分析使用TAAP修复颈咽部缺损的经验。方法回顾分析2013年5月~2017年4月诊治20例TAAP修复咽瘘、咽部黏膜缺损和颈部皮肤缺损。本组患者年龄48~68岁,平均年龄53岁。下咽癌切除+全喉切除10例,保留喉功能的下咽癌切除7例,颈部皮肤缺损3例。咽部黏膜缺损4.5 cm×3 cm~6.5 cm×5 cm,颈部皮肤缺损5.5 cm×4 cm~8 cm×6 cm,皮瓣大小6 cm×4 cm~8 cm×6 cm。结果18例术后皮瓣成活,供区直接拉拢缝合,没有出现皮瓣坏死,其中15例行下咽黏膜修复的患者,术后2~5周恢复经口进食并行术后放疗,剂量60~67 Gy。另2例术中发现穿支血运障碍,更换成颏下皮瓣修复下咽缺损。随访3~36个月,1例术后14个月出现胸段食管癌,1例术后18个月出现纵膈淋巴结转移,均予以放化疗, 1例术后1年出现颈部淋巴结转移复发予以化疗,余病例无复发。结论胸肩峰动脉穿支皮瓣因为邻近颈部、血管相对恒定、皮瓣薄适用于修复咽部黏膜和颈段食管缺损;胸肩峰动脉为血管蒂的一蒂双岛的TAAP和胸大肌皮瓣同时修复复杂的颈部皮肤和咽部黏膜缺损。胸肩峰动脉穿支皮瓣的穿支细小,穿越锁骨下隧道时穿支区域和血管蒂不能扭曲,发现皮瓣血运异常应及时更换其他修复方法。     

Anatomical study and modified incision of the infrahyoid myocutaneous flap

Skin paddle necrosis and neck function damage, particularly rotation, are two problems associated with the infrahyoid myocutaneous flap clinical application. The aim of this study was to investigate vessel supply and drainage of the skin paddle and to report our modified flap incision technique. In this work, we conducted a cadaveric study and reviewed our experience with the modified incision and describe the surgical procedure. We confirmed the platysma muscle branch feeds the skin paddle overlying the infrahyoid myocutaneous flap. The length between the platysma muscle branch entry point and its originating point measured 3.38 (min 2.51, max 4.52) cm. The flap has two drainage systems. The skin paddle of the flap was drained by the anterior jugular vein and external jugular vein, respectively, or both. The infrahyoid muscles were drained by the superior thyroid vein. In the early four cases, where the platysma muscle branch was not protected, skin paddle necrosis appeared in two cases. In the later seven cases, which involved preservation of the platysma muscle branch, all flaps successfully survived. Patients in whom a modified incision was used all achieved both satisfactory rehabilitation of neck function and an adequate esthetic result. We conclude that the necrosis rate of the skin paddle of the flap can be reduced by carefully protecting its supply and drainage vessels. The modified incision can improve neck function postoperatively.     

Surgical techniques and results of lateral thoracic cutaneous, myocutaneous, and conjoint flaps for head and neck reconstruction

BACKGROUND: This paper aims at presentation of our surgical techniques and results of the lateral thoracic (LT) flaps for head and neck reconstructions. METHOD: There were seven LT cutaneous, seven LT myocutaneous, and two LT conjoint myocutaneous flaps for reconstruction of head and neck mucosal or cutaneous defects. RESULTS: The largest flap size was 22 cm x 13 cm. All donor sites were closed primarily. The highest point of reconstruction was in the nasopharynx internally and zygoma externally. All flaps survived without major complication. CONCLUSIONS: The LT flap has the versatility of cutaneous, myocutaneous, and conjoint flaps with pectoralis major or latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flaps to reconstruct large surgical defects. It has a large, reliable surface area, a long pedicle to reach nasopharynx and zygoma, and has less bulky muscle to facilitate tubular reconstruction of circumferential pharyngeal defect, one-stage operation, esthetic hidden donor site scar in axillary region, and minimal donor site morbidity. It is an additional reliable pedicle flap in our armamentarium for reconstruction of both cutaneous and mucosal defects in the head and neck region.     

头颈部岛状肌皮瓣和皮瓣的改良设计及临床应用

目的　探讨制作单一血管为蒂的头颈部局部带蒂肌皮瓣或皮瓣的安全性。方法　解剖学观察20例胸肩峰动脉分支,观察最远入肌点走行特征。通过术前超声观察和术中透视法观察定位最远入肌点,在最远入肌点上方1～2 cm断离肌肉,形成单纯动静脉血管为蒂的胸大肌岛状肌肌皮瓣。利用同样的技术方法,设计岛状的胸锁乳突肌、下位斜方肌的岛状肌皮瓣。结果　解剖学观察胸肩峰动脉分支分为单支型12.5%（5/40）,双支型67.5%（27/40）,多支型20%（8/40）。术前超声定位胸大肌皮瓣的最远入肌点成功率为29.1%（14/48）,DSA成功显影乳内动脉穿支66.7%（12/18）,共完成胸大肌岛状肌皮瓣48例,乳内动脉岛状皮瓣12例,颏瓣18例,下位斜方肌岛状肌皮瓣4例,胸锁乳突肌岛状肌皮瓣4例,颈横血管岛状皮瓣3例,胸肩峰动脉穿支的岛状皮瓣3例。失败2例,1例为胸大肌肌皮瓣的岛状设计中电刀误伤胸肩峰动脉胸肌支;1例为颈横血管浅支,术中修复扁桃体癌咽侧壁缺损。3例胸大肌部分坏死,清理完坏死组织,换药后痊愈。结论　在头颈部设计单一血管为蒂的岛状肌皮瓣（皮瓣）的改良设计安全可行,在受区皮瓣容易塑形固定,供区不仅外形美观且功能保全。     

Second primary squamous cell carcinoma arising in cutaneous flap reconstructions of two head and neck cancer patients

Early complications of myocutaneous flap transfers following surgical eradication of head and neck tumors have been extensively described. However, knowledge concerning long-term complications of these techniques remains limited. We report the cases of two patients with a prior history of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC), who developed a second primary SCC on the cutaneous surface of their flaps, years after reconstruction. Interestingly, it seems that the well-known risk of a second primary SCC in patients with previous head and neck carcinoma also applies to foreign tissues implanted within the area at risk. Given the important expansion of these interventions, this type of complication may become more frequent in the future. Therefore, long-term follow-up of patients previously treated for HNSCC not only requires careful evaluation of the normal mucosa of the upper aero-digestive tract, but also of the cutaneous surface of the flap used for reconstruction.     

Bipedicles chest flap: a novel technique for the reconstruction of anterior neck defect

This paper presents our surgical technique and the results of using bipedicled superior chest flaps for head and neck reconstructions. The study design consisted of a case series of surgical technique. The study was conducted at tertiary referral centers with otorhinolaryngology-head and neck surgery departments. In seven patients, we used bipedicled superior chest flaps for reconstruction of anterior cutaneous neck defects due to surgery for the recurrence of laryngopharyngeal carcinoma. The largest flap size was 45 × 14 cm. All donor sites were closed primarily with advancement in the lateral part and split thickness skin grafts in the superior midline of chest. The highest point of reconstruction was in the hypopharynx internally and hyoid externally. All flaps survived without major complications. A bipedicled upper chest flap can reliably cover the skin defects that create following salvage total laryngectomies in patients with advanced stage tumors with skin involvement.     

The trapezius myocutaneous flap.

The three trapezius myocutaneous flaps remain valuable adjuncts in head and neck reconstructive surgery. Overall, the lower vertical trapezius flap has the most versatility and reliability, and the least morbidity. There are several advantages of this flap compared to the pectoralis myocutaneous (PMC) flap. It has a thin vascular pedicle, and thus does not add excessive bulk to the neck, as the PMC can. Also, the skin island has less subcutaneous tissue and therefore more pliability than the PMC, which is a definite advantage for oral cavity and oropharyngeal defects. The trapezius flap generally has less hair than the PMC flap, and the donor scar is better hidden.     

The combined latissimus dorsi-scapular free flap in head and neck reconstruction.

Microvascular free tissue transfer techniques offer great versatility in the selection of tissue for reconstruction of head and neck defects. The system of flaps based on the subscapular artery and vein provides the widest array of composite free flaps. The possible flaps that can be harvested based on this single vascular pedicle include the scapular and parascapular skin flaps, the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi muscle flaps, and the lateral scapular bone flap. In addition, a segment of vascularized rib can be transferred with the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi muscles. Large cutaneous defects can be resurfaced by combining the latissimus dorsi and scapular flaps. Another advantage of this combined flap is the independent vascular pedicles of its components, which allow freedom in orientation of the various tissue segments. Thus, the combined flap can be helpful in reconstructing complex three-dimensional composite defects of the head and neck. In addition, by reinnervating the muscle portions of this flap, bulk can be preserved and an improved functional reconstruction of the oral cavity achieved. A review of the literature shows three previous reports utilizing this combination of flaps in five patients. We report the use of the combined latissimus dorsi-scapular free flap in six patients to reconstruct massive composite defects of the oral cavity, midface, and scalp. There was one flap failure, which was successfully reconstructed with the contralateral latissimus dorsi-scapular flap. The anatomy of this flap is reviewed, and the indications for its application are discussed.     

Nasalis myocutaneous flap for nasal reconstruction

Eight patients underwent reconstruction of the nasal supratip using nasalis myocutaneous flaps. This flap's blood supply is an axial blood supply from the nasalis muscle. The muscle originates from the piriform aperature and stretches out into an aponeurosis that attaches into the dermis in the nasal supratip and tip areas. Tumor defects 1 to 2 cm in diameter have been reconstructed using this versatile flap. I have been very impressed with natural alar contour, skin texture, and color matching using these flaps. The nasalis myocutaneous flap can be advanced up to 1.5 cm and can be used for lateral nasal wall and central nasal tip defects.     

Sternocleidomastoid myocutaneous flap

The sternocleidomastoid myocutancous flap has several applications for reconstruction of defects about the head and neck. It is used for augmentation of facial defects, carotid artery protection, and repair of oral cavity defects. Additional reconstructive efforts suggest the sternocleidomastoid myocutancous flap can be used for facial reanimation and as an osteomyocutaneous flap incorporating the clavicle for mandibular reconstruction. Reports of unreliable viability and resection of the sternocleidomastoid muscle during neck dissection decreases the applicability of the flap. Twenty-seven sternocleidomastoid flaps were used in 26 patients for head and neck reconstruction. In contrast to the reported 40% to 50% incidence of superficial slough or total flap necrosis, three (11%) flaps developed superficial (cutaneous) slough while two patients developed inclusion cysts. The technique includes elevation of the sternocleidomastoid muscle with the overlying platysma and skin originally described by Owens. The procedure is modified by removing the epithelium on the tunneled portion of the flap. This allows the flap to be used as a one-stage method of reconstruction without sacrificing the additional blood supply from the platysma and overlying dermis.     

The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction

The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMC flap) represents a landmark in the development of head and neck reconstructive surgery. After Stephan Ariyan first described its use for head and neck reconstruction in 1979, it has become tremendously popular and has revolutionised head and neck cancer surgery. Here, we present our initial experience with fourteen PMMC flaps in head and neck reconstruction. In most of the instances it was used for oral or oropharyngeal reconstruction. It was used for five other reconstructive tasks as well. Wound infection was the most common complication. There was no case of total flap loss. It has proven to be a reliable method of reconstuction in the head and neck.