Interpersonal awareness and smoking behavior in the workplace.

A questionnaire survey was conducted in small-scale production companies in Japan to examine "interpersonal awareness" and smoking behavior in the workplace. Interpersonal awareness (IA) of smokers is defined as awareness of other people's presence when smoking. Study participants were 1048 smokers and 744 nonsmokers, contrasted by worksite: office or production. Controlling for selected baseline variables, office work smokers, who smoked more in the workplace than production work smokers (77.4% vs 51.6%, p < .001), had a higher IA in the workplace (75.5% vs 58.9%, p < .001) but did not differ in IA at home (69.7% vs 66.0%). In male smokers of both worksites, degree of IA in the workplace correlated positively with that at home (rs = .36, p < .001, office; rs = .45, p < .001, production), and daily cigarette consumption correlated negatively with degree of IA at home (rs = -.44, p < .001, office; rs = -.17, p < .001, production). A predilection for smoking more at home than in the workplace correlated with higher IA in the workplace for male office smokers (rs = -.21, p < .01). In contrast, a predilection for smoking more at home than in the workplace correlated with lower degree of IA at home for production smokers of both sexes (rs = 20, p < .001, male; rs = .53, p < .05, female). Interpersonal awareness is deemed an important behavioral factor for smoking workers.     

Saliva cotinine levels in smokers and nonsmokers

The authors collected by mail self-reported data on smoking habits and saliva samples that were analyzed for cotinine concentration in 222 smokers and 97 nonsmokers. Participants were members of the University of Geneva (Switzerland) in 1995. The 207 cigarette-only smokers smoked on average 10.7 cigarettes/day and had a median concentration of cotinine of 113 ng/ml. The cotinine concentration was moderately associated with the number of cigarettes smoked per day (+14 ng/ml per additional cigarette, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.45) and was 54 ng/ml higher in men than in women after adjustment for cigarettes per day and for the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence. The cotinine level was not associated with the nicotine yield of cigarettes (r= 0.08). In nonsmokers, the median concentration of cotinine was 2.4 ng/ml. The cotinine concentration was 1.5 times higher in nonsmokers whose close friends/spouses were smokers than in nonsmokers whose close friends/spouses were nonsmokers (p = 0.05). A cutoff of 7 ng/ml of cotinine distinguished smokers from nonsmokers with a sensitivity of 92.3% and a specificity of 89.7%; a cutoff of 13 ng/ml provided equally satisfactory results (sensitivity, 86.5%; specificity, 95.9%). This study provides evidence for the construct validity of both questionnaires and saliva cotinine for the assessment of active and passive exposure to tobacco smoke.     

Dietary intake of Australian smokers and nonsmokers

Abstract: The 1983 National Dietary Survey of Adults and the 1983 Risk Factor Prevalence Survey No. 2, conducted on the same subjects, provided an opportunity to examine the nutrient intakes of smokers (1024 men and 785 women) and nonsmokers (1974 men and 2421 women). The nutrients analysed were energy (kJ); fat (g/day and contribution to energy); starch (contribution to energy); dietary fibre (g/day and g/1000 kJ); alcohol (g/1000 kJ); polyunsaturated/saturated fats ratio; cholesterol, niacin, vitamin C, calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium (mg/1000 kJ); and vitamin A, thiamin and riboflavin ((μg/1000 kJ). For both men and women, nonsmokers have a significantly higher intake of starch, dietary fibre (g/day and g/1000 kJ), thiamin, vitamin C, calcium and magnesium than smokers, who have a significantly higher intake of alcohol. Male smokers also have a higher intake of energy and cholesterol, but a lower intake of riboflavin, than nonsmokers. These differences in nutrient intakes suggest that non–smokers consume a more nutritious diet than smokers, in regard to having a higher intake of fruit and vegetables, wholegrain cereals and milk and milk products. There is a highly statistically significant association between smoking status and hazardous intake of alcohol. Both men and women who smoke have a significantly lower body mass index (BMI), than nonsmokers or ex–smokers.     

Involuntary smoking and lung cancer

Involuntary smoking contains human carcinogens. Exposure prevalence among adults is on the order of 40%. A meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies on lung cancer and exposure to involuntary smoking from the spouse included 51 studies. The overall relative risk (RR), based on 7369 cases of lung cancer, was 1.25 [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.15-1.37]. No evidence existed of an RR difference between the two genders, and study design had no influence on the results. The summary RR was lower for adenocarcinoma than for other histological types. In the largest studies cumulative exposure suggested a dose-response relationship with a unit risk of similar magnitude. The summary RR was 1.17 (95% CI 1.04-1.32) for workplace exposure. Several sources of bias may lead to both overestimation and underestimation of true association, and the most plausible interpretation favors a causal association. Even if excess risk from exposure to involuntary smoking is small, its large prevalence makes it an important environmental carcinogen.     

Unrealistic optimism among adolescent smokers and nonsmokers

Two studies were conducted to investigate unrealistic optimism among adolescent cigarette smokers. In the first study, 54 smokers and 304 nonsmokers agreed that there was a strong relationship between smoking and lung cancer. Nonsmokers accurately perceived their chances of contracting lung cancer as below average. However, smokers perceived themselves as having only an average chance of contracting lung cancer. The second study replicated the first in both procedure and results regarding lung cancer, but also added perceptions of the relationship between smoking and two other smoking-related health problems, emphysema and heart attacks. The results were similar: 33 smokers rated their chances of developing emphysema and having heart attacks as higher than 299 nonsmokers, but still viewed their chances as only about average. Finally, perceptions of stress were examined. Smokers perceived themselves to be under more stress than nonsmokers. It was concluded that self-deception as indicated by unrealistic optimism regarding the chances of getting smoking-related diseases characterized adolescent smokers.A version of this paper was presented by the first author at the Southeastern Psychological Association annual meeting in Washington, D.C., March, 1989, as part of a symposium on Adolescent Health Issues in Community Psychology, Jeanne T. Hernadez, Ph.D., University of North Carolina, Chair. Appreciation is expressed to the students and teachers at Albemarle High School, Charlottesville, Virginia, who participated in this investigation.     

Metabolic effects of nicotine after consumption of a meal in smokers and nonsmokers

The thermogenic effect of nicotine intake after calorie consumption was investigated to determine if nicotine influences metabolic response to a calorie challenge. Smokers and nonsmokers (10 males in each group), matched for body weight, age, and physical fitness, each participated in four sessions that involved consuming a liquid calorie load (4.77 kcal/kg body wt) or water, followed by nicotine (15 micrograms/kg body wt) or placebo via nasal spray every 20 min for 2 h. Energy expenditure was significantly increased above baseline resting metabolic rate (RMR) over the 2 h by nicotine alone (6.5% of RMR, p less than 0.01). However, the combined effect of nicotine after calorie load (20.1% of RMR, p less than 0.001) was not significantly greater than the effect of calorie load alone (18.4% of RMR, p less than 0.001). Smokers and nonsmokers did not differ in baseline RMR or in response to nicotine or calorie load. These results confirm the thermogenic effect of nicotine but suggest that the effect of nicotine after calorie consumption is less than additive.     

Heart disease mortality in nonsmokers living with smokers

A private census of Washington County, Maryland, in 1963 obtained information on smoking habits of all adults in the census, and death certificates of all residents who died in the next 12 years were coded for underlying cause of death and matched to the census. Among the white population aged 25 and over, 4,162 men and 14,873 women had never smoked. In this group, death rates from arteriosclerotic heart disease were significantly higher among men (relative risk (RR) = 1.31, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1-1.6) and women (RR = 1.24, 95% CI 1.1-1.4) who lived with smokers in 1963, after adjustment for age, marital status, years of schooling, and quality of housing. Among women, the relative risk increased significantly (p less than 0.005) with increasing level of exposure; among men, there was little evidence of a dose-response relation. The relative risks for nonsmokers who lived with smokers were greatest among both men and women who were younger than age 45 in 1963, but the number of deaths in these groups was small, and confidence intervals were broad. These results suggest a small but measurable risk for arteriosclerotic heart disease among nonsmokers who live with smokers.     

Dietary antioxidant supplementation and DNA damage in smokers and nonsmokers

Deficiencies of antioxidant nutrients have been implicated in the etiology of lung and other cancers. However, most intervention trials with antioxidant nutrients have not shown beneficial effects, and some have indicated that beta-carotene may be deleterious. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated the effects of five short-term (4-wk) antioxidant nutrient supplement regimens [ascorbic acid (350 mg), RRR-alpha-tocopherol (250 mg), beta-carotene (60 mg), selenium (80 micrograms as sodium selenite), ascorbic acid (350 mg) + RRR-alpha-tocopherol (250 mg)] on plasma antioxidants and mononuclear leukocyte DNA damage in male smokers (n = 9) and nonsmokers (n = 12). Plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid and tocopherol were significantly increased by supplementation, but there was no significant change in plasma beta-carotene or blood glutathione peroxidase activity after supplementation with beta-carotene or selenium. DNA damage in mononuclear leukocytes, as assessed by comet assay, was not affected by any supplementation regimen. DNA damage, as assessed by 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine in mononuclear leukocytes, was not influenced by ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol, or selenium supplementation in smokers or nonsmokers, but beta-carotene supplementation resulted in significant differences between smokers and nonsmokers in the level of oxidative DNA damage, with decreases in smokers and increases in smokers. This is a further indication of the differential effects of supplemental beta-carotene in smokers and nonsmokers.     

Understanding college students' salient attitudes and beliefs about smoking: distinctions between smokers, nonsmokers, and ex-smokers

This research examines the salient attitudes and beliefs that college students hold about cigarette smoking. An exploratory survey was employed that contained a combination of semantic differential items and open-ended questions. The data indicated that smoking status (i.e., whether a student is a nonsmoker, smoker, or ex-smoker) was related to attitudes about the attractiveness, riskiness, and intelligence of cigarette smoking. Additionally, salient beliefs about smoking include that nonsmokers report never smoking due to health reasons, smokers and ex-smokers both report peer pressure as the primary reason for starting to smoke, and the main reason smokers continue to smoke is because they are addicted. The best thing reported about smoking was that it relieves stress, and the worst thing reported about smoking was the smell. Several suggestions are made for future interventions targeted toward college students.     

The industry manipulation attitudes of smokers and nonsmokers.

A cross-sectional random sample was obtained of Florida youth between the ages of 12-17. Data were collected through a telephone survey after obtaining parent and child consent. Industry manipulation attitudes of three groups (self-identified nonsmokers who did not use cigarettes in the past 30 days, self-identified nonsmokers who used cigarettes in the past 30 days, and self-identified smokers who used cigarettes in the past 30 days) were compared. Constraints resulting from the method of data collection resulted in a conservative estimate of the strength of the association between industry manipulation attitudes and smoking behavior.     

Visual processes of smokers and nonsmokers at different ages

Forty smokers and forty nonsmokers were matched for age over the range from 21 to 76 yr. The battery of tests included: optometric refraction for near vision, scotopic sensitivity, simple and choice reaction time, visually evoked cortical potentials to targets flashing at 1 and 16 times/sec, EEG, and a perimetric test of color detection. Roughly the same number of smokers and nonsmokers required spectacle corrections, but smokers tended to require more plus correction. The mean scotopic sensitivity of the smokers was significantly worse than that of the nonsmokers. Reaction time tended to be poorer for the smokers. There were no differences on the perimetry test and in the EEGs of the smokers and nonsmokers, and no significant changes in the visually evoked responses to either 1 or 16 flashes/sec. There was virtually no evidence of an increasing difference between the smokers and nonsmokers with increasing age.     

Association of benzo[a]pyrene-diol-epoxide-deoxyribonucleic acid (BPDE-DNA) adduct level with aging in male smokers and nonsmokers

We used our new flow cytometric method to measure benzo[a]pyrene-diolepoxide-deoxyribonucleic acid adduct levels in peripheral lymphocytes from healthy male smokers and nonsmokers. Smokers who had pack-years of 20 or more had significantly higher mean benzo[a]pyrene-diol-epoxide-deoxyribonucleic acid adduct levels than nonsmokers. In smokers, the adduct levels were correlated significantly with age, years of smoking, and pack-years, whereas daily tobacco consumption was not correlated with adduct levels. We also found a positive relationship between age and benzo[a]pyrene-diol-epoxide-deoxyribonucleic acid adduct levels in nonsmokers. Passive exposure to tobacco smoke was not associated with adduct levels. The results of our study indicate that benzo[a]pyrene-diol-epoxide-deoxyribonucleic acid adduct levels may be closely related to aging and that tobacco smoking-as well as other environmental factors-may play a role in the benzo[a]pyrene-diol-epoxide-deoxyribonucleic acid adduct formation.     

Changes in smoking behaviour after a total workplace smoking ban

This paper reports data on changes in smoking behaviour after the introduction of a total workplace smoking ban in Telecom Australia. A sample of 1089 Telecom staff were surveyed in the months before the introduction of the ban and 620 were resurveyed six months after the ban had been implemented. A further sample of 1424 was drawn from the same parts of the organisation 18 months after implementation. Among the smokers in these samples, the bans produced a reduction in workday cigarette consumption of between three and four cigarettes a day and this reduction was maintained at 18 months. Over the two-year period from six months before the ban to 18 months after it, smoking prevalence dropped about 5 per cent, which we estimate is about twice the decline found in the general community. Workplace smoking bans can produce public health and can assist individual smokers to regulate their habit.     

Mutagenicity of urine from young male smokers and nonsmokers

Summary The mutagenicity of urine from a healthy population of young adult men (average age of 23 years), including 61 smokers and 107 nonsmokers, was investigated with the Salmonella/microsome test using the tester strain S. typhymurium TA98. In quantifying the assay, the use of dichloromethane was suitable for eluting the mutagenicity of smokers' urine from the XAD-2 resin column. We assayed mutagenicity in condensates of such dichloromethane eluates and found that the mutagenicity of smokers' urine was significantly higher than that of nonsmokers' urine. In the smokers' group, correlation coefficient between the mutagenicity of the urine and the actual number of cigarettes smoked on the day of urine collection or the average number of cigarettes smoked per day was statistically significant at 0.266 or 0.454, respectively. Our results suggest a correlation between the increase of mutagens in urine and smoking habits.     

Ascorbate is depleted by smoking and repleted by moderate supplementation: a study in male smokers and nonsmokers with matched dietary antioxidant intakes

BACKGROUND: Lack of reliable dietary data has hampered the ability to effectively distinguish between effects of smoking and diet on plasma antioxidant status. As confirmed by analyses of comprehensive food-frequency questionnaires, the total dietary intakes of fruit and vegetables and of dietary antioxidants were not significantly different between the study groups in the present study, thereby enabling isolation of the effect of smoking. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to investigate the effect of smoking on plasma antioxidant status by measuring ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, beta-carotene, and lycopene, and subsequently, to test the effect of a 3-mo dietary supplementation with a moderate-dose vitamin cocktail. DESIGN: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled design, the effect of a vitamin cocktail containing 272 mg vitamin C, 31 mg all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, and 400 microg folic acid on plasma antioxidants was determined in a population of smokers (n = 37) and nonsmokers (n = 38). The population was selected for a low intake of fruit and vegetables and recruited from the San Francisco Bay area. RESULTS: Only ascorbic acid was significantly depleted by smoking per se (P < 0.01). After the 3-mo supplementation period, ascorbic acid was efficiently repleted in smokers (P < 0.001). Plasma alpha-tocopherol and the ratio of alpha- to gamma-tocopherol increased significantly in both supplemented groups (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that previous reports of lower concentrations of plasma vitamin E and carotenoids in smokers than in nonsmokers may primarily have been caused by differences in dietary habits between study groups. Plasma ascorbic acid was depleted by smoking and repleted by moderate supplementation.