Mechanism of dimethylnitrosamine and carbon tetrachloride-induced liver necrosis: similarities and differences.

Dimethylnitrosamine (DMNA) does not give spectral changes by interaction with microsomal suspensions while CCl₄ gives a type I spectral change. DMNA neither has any effect on the P-450 reductase activity nor induces lipid peroxidation in vivo as CCl₄ does. Cystamine prevents DMNA-induced necrosis at 24 hr. Pyrazole, nicotinamide, and aminotriazole diminish the centrilobular necrosis produced by DMNA to a certain extent, while SKF 525-A exerted no preventive effect.     

Imipramine prevention of carbon tetrachloride-induced liver necrosis at late states of the intoxication process

Imipramine administration (50 mg kg-1, i.p.) to Sprague-Dawley male rats (240-290 g) 6 or 10 h after CCl4 (1 ml kg-1, i.p.) partially prevents liver necrosis induced by the hepatotoxin. When imipramine is given 30 min before CCl4, it inhibits in part the CCl4-induced lipid peroxidation and the covalent interactions of reactive metabolites with microsomal lipids or proteins and partially prevents CCl4-induced cytochrome P-450 destruction, but not glucose 6 phosphatase activity depression. Imipramine administration prior to CCl4 does not modify levels of the hepatotoxin reaching the liver or the body temperature of CCl4 treated animals. Early preventive effects of imipramine on cytochrome P-450, might be attributed to inhibition of covalent interactions of reactive metabolites. The hypothesis that imipramine exerted late preventive effects by interfering with calcium deleterious effects or by modulation of protein and phospholipid synthesis or degradation is analyzed.     

Late preventive effects against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver necrosis of the calcium chelating agent calcion

In agreement with the hypothesis that changes in calcium homeostasis might be significant in late stages of chemically-induced liver cell injury, a calcium chelating agent, Calcion, was able to partially prevent CCl₄-induced liver necrosis observed at 24 h, when treatment was given as late as 6 or 10 h after the hepatotoxin. Calcion had minor or no effects on covalent binding of reactive metabolites to cellular components, or on lipid peroxidation or on CCl₄ levels reaching the liver. Calcion treatment of CCl₄-poisoned animals decreased CCl₄-induced calcium increases in liver and increased gluthathione levels decreased by hepatotoxin at 24 h. Calcion treatment was not able to prevent CCl₄-induced fatty liver. Calcion protective effects were body temperature dependent but they were cancelled when Calcion-treated poisoned animals were kept normothermic. Results suggest that Calcion protective effects might be linked to calcium chelation or alternatively that they might derive from decreases in body temperature.     

Late preventive effects of trifluoperazine on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic necrosis

As a very preliminary test for a possible role of calmodulin in CCl4-induced hepatic injury, we studied the effects of the anticalmodulin drug trifluoperazine (TFP) on several deleterious actions of CCl4 on the liver. TFP administrated 30 min before or 6 or 10 hr after CCl4 significantly prevented hepatic necrosis induced by the hepatotoxin at 24 hr but not at 72 hr. TFP did not modify the CCl4 concentrations reaching the liver, or the intensity of the covalent binding of CCl4-reactive metabolites to hepatic microsomal proteins or lipids or the CCl4-induced cytochrome P-450 and glucose 6 phosphatase destruction. TFP administration decreased body temperature between 0 and 1 degree C in controls and between 1.2 and 3.5 degrees C in CCl4-treated animals during the 24-hr observation period. When TFP-treated CCl4-poisoned animals were kept normothermic, protective effects were eliminated. One possibility is that the protective effect of TFP might be due to a nonspecific action related to decreased body temperature. Alternatively, prevention might result from TFP inhibition of a late-occurring process critical for CCl4-induced cell necrosis requiring calmodulin participation. If this alternative were in operation, protective consequences of this inhibitory effect of TFP should be either canceled or counteracted in the normothermic TFP + CCl4-treated animal.     

四氯化碳致大鼠肝损伤的机理

给大鼠一次po四氯化碳(CCl_4)23 mmol/kg后,血清ALT分别于3和12 h起逐渐增高;肝微粒体细胞色素P450同时下降。染毒后24和48 h肝线粒体GSH明显降低,胞液GSH则未见明显变化。血清脂质过氧化物丙二醛(MDA)经时过程呈双相,即染毒后3～24 h明显降低,至48 h则显著增高。染毒后12～48 h肝线粒体和微粒体MDA明显增高;同时膜脂流动性增高.8-甲氧补骨脂素预处理可显著降低CCl_4引起的肝匀浆MDA和血清ALT增高。结果提示CCl_4均裂产物启动的膜脂过氧化和流动性增高可能是CCl_4致肝损伤的二次反应。     

Amelioration of carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic necrosis by post-toxicant treatment with cystamine

A quantitative animal model was developed to study amelioration of carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury by post-toxicant administration of cystamine. Amelioration of CCl4-induced injury by post-toxicant cystamine treatment was compared to prevention of injury by cystamine pretreatment and possible mechanisms of the post-toxicant cytoprotective effect were investigated. Pretreatment of rats with cystamine dihydrochloride (300 mg/kg, p.o.) 30 min prior to CCl4 (0.25 ml/kg, i.p.) prevented CCl4-induced hepatic necrosis, plasma enzyme elevations, and hepatic calcium accumulation. When administered up to 12 h after CCl4, a single oral dose of cystamine inhibited necrosis in a dose-dependent manner, but did not reduce CCl4-induced plasma enzyme elevation or hepatic calcium accumulation. Cystamine post-treatment, therefore, does not appear to inhibit toxicant-induced influx of extracellular calcium into toxicant-damaged cells. This also suggests that the influx of extracellular calcium does not necessarily constitute an irreversible event leading to cell death. The mild hypothermia induced by post-toxicant treatment with cystamine did not delay the appearance of the lesion. Evidence for a slightly earlier regeneration of hepatic tissue was noted when cystamine was administered 12 h after CCl4. However, this effect was observed too long after exposure to the toxicant to account for the protection from necrosis observed 24 h after CCl4.     

Hepatoprotective effect ofVitex negundo against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage

Alcoholic extract of the seeds of Vitex negundo Linn. was obtained by cold maceration. A dose of 250 mg/kg (1/6 of LD50) of the extract was selected to study the hepatoprotective action against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage. The extract was found to be effective in preventing liver damage which was evident by morphological, biochemical and functional parameters.     

Hepatoprotective effects ofAndrographis paniculata against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage

Alcoholic extract of the leaves of Andrographis paniculata Ness (= AAP) was obtained by cold maceration. A dose of 300 mg/kg (1/6 of LD50) of the extract was selected to study hepatoprotective action against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage. The extract was found to be effective in preventing liver damage which was evident by morphological, biochemical and functional parameters.     

Resveratrol ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in mice

The planktivorous filter-feeding silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) are the attractive candidates for bio-control of plankton communities to eliminate odorous populations of cyanobacteria. However, few studies focused on the health of such fishes in natural water body with vigorous toxic blooms. Blood parameters are useful and sensitive for diagnosis of diseases and monitoring of the physiological status of fish exposed to toxicants. To evaluate the impact of toxic cyanobacterial blooms on the planktivorous fish, 12 serum chemistry variables were investigated in silver carp and bighead carp for 9 months, in a large net cage in Meiliang Bay, a hypereutrophic region of Lake Taihu. The results confirmed adverse effects of cyanobacterial blooms on two phytoplanktivorous fish, which mainly characterized with potential toxicogenomic effects and metabolism disorders in liver, and kidney dysfunction. In addition, cholestasis was intensively implied by distinct elevation of all four related biomarkers (ALP, GGT, DBIL, TBIL) in bighead carp. The combination of LDH, AST activities and DBIL, URIC contents for silver carp, and the combination of ALT, ALP activities and TBIL, DBIL, URIC concentrations for bighead carps were found to most strongly indicate toxic effects from cyanobacterial blooms in such fishes by a multivariate discriminant analysis.     

Xanthohumol prevents carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in rats

Xanthohumol (XN), a prenyl flavonoid present in beer, prevents the acute hepatic injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) in rats. Pre-treatment of rats with XN significantly reduced the increased liver weight observed in CCl₄-intoxicated rats, normalised the increased values of plasma lactate dehydrogenase, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase and glutamate pyruvate transaminase activities and reduced the incidence of histopathological alterations produced by CCl₄. The oxidative stress induced by CCl₄ administration elicited a significant decrease in the levels of reduced glutathione as well as an increase in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and H₂O₂ concentrations. Pre-treatment of rats with XN resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in reduced glutathione (GSH) content and a reduction in TBARS and H₂O₂ concentrations to their normal values. XN pre-treatment also prevented the significant reductions of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase activities observed in CCl₄-treated rats compared to control animals.     

Evidence for carbon tetrachloride-induced lipid peroxidation in mouse liver

The involvement of lipid peroxidation in the mechanism of carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity has been a point of controversy. Previous investigators have reported an absence of lipid peroxidative degradation products in mice after exposure to carbon tetrachloride and have used this evidence against the hypothesis that lipid peroxidation is an integral part of the events that cause tissue damage. We have compared the extent of lipid peroxidation caused by carbon tetrachloride between Sprague-Dawley rats and three strains of mice (A/J, BALB/cJ, and C57B1/6J) in in vitro and in vivo systems. Hepatic microsomes isolated from fasted mice of each strain produced more malondialdehyde (a degradation product of lipid peroxidation) per mg microsomal protein than those isolated from fasted rats at all times of incubation with CCl₄. In vivo lipid peroxidation was estimated by the lipid conjugated diene content in hepatic microsomes from the rat and three strains of mice. Increased conjugated diene formation was observed in microsomal lipids of these animals after intraperitoneal injection of CCl₄ (1 ifml/kg as a 20% solution in corn oil) when compared to animals given only corn oil, but no differences were found in the amount of conjugated dienes between mice and rats. Our observations show that the CCl₄-treated mouse undergoes hepatic lipid peroxidation at least as well as the rat, and indicate that lipid peroxidation cannot be excluded as a mechanism of carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity as has been claimed on the basis of its ineffectiveness in the mouse.     

Resveratrol ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in mice

Present investigation aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective potential of resveratrol (30 mg/kg, po) in mice following two different routes (po and sc) of exposure to carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄, 1.0 ml/kg). Administration of CCl₄ caused significant increase in the release of transaminases, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, creatinine kinase, total bilirubin, urea and uric acid in serum. Significantly enhanced hepatic lipid peroxidation and oxidized glutathione with marked depletion in reduced glutathione were observed after CCl₄ intoxication. It was also found that CCl₄ administration caused severe alterations in liver histology. Hepatic injury was more severe in those animals who received CCl₄ by oral route than those who exposed to CCl₄ subcutaneously. Resveratrol treatment was able to mitigate hepatic damage induced by acute intoxication of CCl₄ and showed pronounced curative effect against lipid peroxidation and deviated serum enzymatic variables as well as maintained glutathione status toward control. Treatment of resveratrol lessened CCl₄ induced damage in liver. The results of the present study suggest that resveratrol has potential to exert curative effects against liver injury.     

Aminotriazole attenuated carbon tetrachloride-induced oxidative liver injury in mice

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) has been used extensively to study xenobiotic-induced oxidative liver injury. Catalase (CAT) is a major antioxidant enzyme while aminotriazole (ATZ) is commonly used as a CAT inhibitor. In the present study, the effects of ATZ on CCl₄-induced liver injury were investigated. Our experimental data showed that pretreatment with ATZ significantly decreased CCl₄-induced elevation of serum aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) and improved hepatic histopathological abnormality. ATZ dose-dependently inhibited the activity of CAT, but it reduced the content of H₂O₂ and the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) in liver tissues. ATZ decreased plasma level of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and reduced hepatic levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO). In addition, posttreatment with ATZ also decreased the level of ALT and AST. These data indicated that ATZ effectively alleviated CCl₄-induced oxidative liver damage. These findings suggested that ATZ might have potential value in preventing oxidative liver injury.     

Carbon tetrachloride-induced early biochemical alterations but not necrosis in pigeon's liver

In contrast to what is well known to occur in rats, pigeons receiving CCl4 (1 ml/kg i.p.) were not susceptible to necrogenic effects of the hepatotoxin at 24 h. There were, however, other early biochemical alterations observable, such as depression of glucose 6 phosphatase activity, decrease in the cytochrome P-450 content and in aminopyrine-N-demethylase activity in pigeon liver microsomes at 3 and 6 h after CCl4 administration. Pigeon liver was able to activate CCl4 to reactive metabolites that bind covalently to lipids, but no CCl4-induced lipid peroxidation was proved by the diene hyperconjugation technique in pigeon liver microsomes at 1, 3 or 6 h after administration. Results suggest that covalent binding of CCl4-reactive metabolites are more relevant to early biochemical alterations induced by CCl4 than is lipid peroxidation. Absence of CCl4-induced necrosis in pigeon liver could be attributable to a smaller intensity of covalent binding interactions observed, when compared to susceptible species, and to absence of lipid peroxidation.