Anatomical variations of the plantar fascia's origin with respect to age and sex—an MRI based study

The plantar fascia (PF) plays a significant role in ankle movement and anatomical variations of this structure may significantly alter the biomechanical properties of the foot and lower extremity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes of the PF's origin point on the calcaneus (CB), and whether these changes are dependent on age and sex. Two independent observers evaluated two hundred and two foot and ankle MRIs and the following measurements was performed: (A) horizontal length of the AT insertion into the posterior aspect of the CB, (B) horizontal length of the CB and (C) horizontal distance from the most anterior point of the CB to the most posterior part of the PF. Statistical analysis was performed with the results obtained to evaluate both sex and age differences. Based on our results, we observed that: (1) changes of the PF's origin point on the CB is independent of age and sex and (2) the continuity between the PF and AT decreases during aging as a result from changes in the AT's insertion point into the CB. This study concludes that the PF's origin point does not change with respect to age or sex, but the continuity between the PF and AT decreases during aging. Knowledge regarding the biomechanical influences caused by changes in the relationship between the AT and PF may be important in terms of treatment and prophylaxis of both PF and AT pathologies. Clin. Anat. 32:597–602, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effects of ageing on the insertion zones of the human vocal fold

The vocal ligaments insert at the anterior and posterior commissures of the larynx. These structures fulfil biomechanical functions, balancing the different elastic moduli of tendon, cartilage or bone and undergo age‐related changes that may be responsible for voice changes with increasing age. The aim of this study was to analyse the insertion structures of the vocal ligaments by means of macroscopic, histological, immunohistochemical and electron‐microscopic methods and to draw conclusions from age‐related structural changes on a functional basis. Investigations were carried out on the larynges of 22 males and 15 females (aged 1–95 y). In adolescence, the insertion zone of the vocal ligament tendon, a dense network of connective tissue rich in sulphated glycosaminoglycans at the thyroid cartilage, is characterised by a layer between tendon and cartilage comparable to fibrocartilage. The insertion zone lacks a perichondrium. Collagen fibrils of the vocal ligament tendon penetrate directly into the thyroid cartilage. In the insertion area, the chondrocytes are surrounded by collagen fibrils, which show positive reactivity to antibodies against type I and type III collagen. Sulphated glycosaminoglycans are integrated between the collagen fibrils. In the area of the posterior glottis, elastic cartilage rests like a cap on the hyaline base of the arytenoid cartilage. There is no distinctive border between the structures. With increasing age, ossification of the laryngeal skeleton occurs, involving hyaline cartilage at the posterior glottis and hyaline and fibrocartilage at the anterior commissure. At the same time, a loss of sulphated glycosaminoglycans is observed inside the vocal ligament tendon. Advanced ossification of the laryngeal skeleton, particularly in the area of the commissures, an increasing loss of glycosaminoglycans in the vocal ligament tendon and changes in the elastic tissue reduce the elastic modulus between tendon, cartilage and bone, thus ‘stiffening’ the insertion zones, which could be one factor among others favouring voice changes with advancing age.     

A proposal for a new classification for the tendon of insertion of tibialis posterior

Although the tendon of the tibialis posterior muscle (TPM) is high morphological variability, its insertion is not well defined in anatomy discussions. The aim of the work is to systematize the classification of tibialis posterior tendon insertion by anatomical dissection. Classical anatomical dissection was performed on 80 lower limbs (40 female, 40 male) fixed in 10% formalin solution. The morphology of the insertion of the tendon was evaluated, and the muscle was subjected to appropriate morphometric measurements. Four types of insertion were observed, the most common being Type III (35 cases – 43.75%): a triple distal attachment where the main tendon inserts to the navicular bone and the medial cuneiform bone, and two accessory bands insert to the medial, lateral, or intermediate cuneiform bone or to the metatarsal bones (II, III, IV, V) depending on subtypes (A–C). The second most common type was Type II (18 cases: 22.5%): a double distal attachment. Type IV (14 cases: 17.5%) was characterized by quadruple distal attachment and was also divided into three subtypes (A–B). The rarest type was Type I (13 cases: 16.25%), which was characterized by a single band: the main tendon inserts to the navicular bone and the medial cuneiform bone. The tendon of the TPM presents high morphological variability. Knowledge of the four particular types of insertions is essential for both clinicians and anatomists. Clin. Anat. 32:557–565, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Structure of the Achilles tendon at the insertion on the calcaneal tuberosity

Findings on the twisting structure and insertional location of the AT on the calcaneal tuberosity are inconsistent. Therefore, to obtain a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying insertional Achilles tendinopathy, clarification of the anatomy of the twisting structure and location of the AT insertion onto the calcaneal tuberosity is important. The purpose of this study was to reveal the twisted structure of the AT and the location of its insertion onto the calcaneal tuberosity using Japanese cadavers. The study was conducted using 132 legs from 74 cadavers (mean age at death, 78.3 ± 11.1 years; 87 sides from men, 45 from women). Only soleus (Sol) attached to the deep layer of the calcaneal tuberosity was classified as least twist (Type I), both the lateral head of the gastrocnemius (LG) and Sol attached to the deep layer of the calcaneal tuberosity were classified as moderate twist (Type II), and only LG attached to the deep layer of the calcaneal tuberosity was classified as extreme twist (Type III). The Achilles tendon insertion onto the calcaneal tuberosity was classified as a superior, middle or inferior facet. Twist structure was Type I (least) in 31 legs (24%), Type II (moderate) in 87 legs (67%), and Type III (extreme) in 12 legs (9%). A comparison between males and females revealed that among men, 20 legs (24%) were Type I, 57 legs (67%) Type II, and eight legs (9%) Type III. Among women, 11 legs (24%) were Type I, 30 legs (67%) Type II, and four legs (9%) Type III. No significant differences were apparent between sexes. The fascicles of the Achilles tendon attach mainly in the middle facet. Anterior fibers of the Achilles tendon, where insertional Achilles tendinopathy is most likely, are Sol in Type I, LG and Sol in Type II, and LG only in Type III. This suggests the possibility that a different strain is produced in the anterior fibers of the Achilles tendon (calcaneal side) where insertional Achilles tendinopathy is most likely to occur in each type. We look forward to elucidating the mechanisms generating insertional Achilles tendinopathy in future biomedical studies based on the present results.     

Revision of hip flexor anatomy and function in modern humans,and implications for the evolution of hominin bipedalism

Hip flexor musculature was instrumental in the evolution of hominin bipedal gait and in endurance running for hunting in the genus Homo. The iliacus and psoas major muscles were historically considered to have separate tendons with different insertions on the lesser trochanter. However, in the early 20th century, it became “common knowledge” that the two muscles insert together on the lesser trochanter as the “iliopsoas” tendon. We revisited the findings of early anatomists and tested the more recent paradigm of a common “iliopsoas” tendon based on dissections of hips and their associated musculature (n = 17). We rediscovered that the tendon of the psoas muscle inserts only into a crest running from the superior to anterior aspect of the lesser trochanter, separate from the iliacus. The iliacus inserts fleshly into the anterior portion of the lesser trochanter and into an inferior crest extending from it. We developed 3D multibody dynamics biomechanical models for: (a) the conjoint “iliopsoas” tendon hypothesis and (b) the separate insertion hypothesis. We show that the conjoint model underestimates the iliacus' capacity to generate hip flexion relative to the separate insertion model. Further work reevaluating the primate lower limb (including human) through dissection, needs to be performed to develop those datasets for reconstructing anatomy in fossil hominins using the extant phylogenetic bracket approach, which is frequently used for tetrapods clades outside of paleoanthropology.     

Tendinous insertion of semimembranosus muscle into the lateral meniscus

Forty-two cadaver knees were used for morphologic and MRI observations of the tendinous distal expansions of the semimembranosus m. and the posterior capsular structures of the knee. A tendinous branch of the semimembranosus m. inserting into the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus was found in 43.2% of the knees dissected, besides five already known insertional branches; capsular, direct, anterior and inferior, as well as the oblique popliteal ligament. The tendon had three morphologic types; thin, broad and round. All three types moved the lateral meniscus posteriorly when pulled on. Thus, the semimembranosus m. may also have a protective function for the lateral meniscus as well as the already well established function of protecting the medial meniscus in knee flexion. When a semimembranosus tendon attachment to the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus is present, its normal insertion is difficult to differentiate from a lateral meniscus tear in MRI and this may cause misdiagnosis.     

Fetal Development of the Human Obturator Internus Muscle With Special Reference to the Tendon and Pulley

To examine the development of the tendon pulley of the obturator internus muscle (OI), we observed paraffin sections of 26 human embryos and fetuses (～6–15 weeks of gestation). The OI was characterized by early maturation of the proximal tendon in contrast to the delayed development of the distal tendon. At 6 weeks, the ischium corresponded to a simple round mass similar to the tuberosity in adults. At 8 weeks, before development of the definite lesser notch of the ischium, initial muscle fibers of the OI, running along the antero‐posterior axis, converged onto a thick and tight but short tendon running along the left‐right axis. Thus, at the beginning of development, the OI muscle belly and tendon met almost at a right angle. At 10 weeks, the OI tendon extended inferiorly along the sciatic nerve, but the distal part remained thin and loose and it was embedded in the gluteus medius tendon. At 15 weeks, in association with the gemellus muscles, the distal OI tendon was established. The mechanically strong sciatic nerve was first likely to catch the OI muscle fibers to provide a temporary insertion. Next, the ischium developing upward seemed to push the tendon to make the turn more acute along the cartilaginous ridge. Finally, the gemellus muscle appeared to provide inferior traction to the OI tendon for separation from the gluteus medius to create the final, independent insertion. Without such guidance, the piriformis tendon first attached to the OI tendon and then merged with the gluteus medius tendon. Anat Rec, 298:1282–1293, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

跟骨内侧定位载距突螺钉导向器的研制与初步评价

目的　探讨从跟骨内侧定位、经载距突置入导向针后,由跟骨外侧壁置入载距突螺钉的可行性及精确度,为临床手术方案设计及导向器械的研发改进提供参考依据。 方法　选取10具20侧成人尸体标本,在跟骨外侧做“L”形延长切口,暴露跟骨外侧结构及距下关节,采用自主研发的“跟骨内侧定位载距突螺钉导向器”辅助载距突螺钉置入。首先,从内侧将“定位针”置入距下中关节,将导向器“内侧臂”的“定位孔”套牢定位针,调整“内侧臂”使“导向通道”位于载距突中心,安装“外侧臂”与“手柄”固定。调整“外侧臂”位置,经“导向通道”从内向外穿入跟骨一枚“导向针”,C臂透视提示“导向针”位置理想后,自跟骨外侧壁沿“导向针”用空心钻钻孔,测深后拧入合适的载距突螺钉。最后行CT扫描,利用CT图像评估置入螺钉的精确度。过程中采集相关数据,评估导向器的功能。 结果　肉眼观察标本,所有的导向针位于载距突内,其中65%位于载距突中心,25%偏下方,10%偏后方。在内侧,75%的导向针穿过胫后肌腱,15%位于胫后肌和趾长屈肌腱之间,10%穿经趾长屈肌腱上1/3。在外侧,导向针出针点与跟骰关节的距离为（38.03±5.60）mm,与后关节面的距离为（15.01±3.38）mm,螺钉平均长度为（44.80±3.59）mm。CT扫描图像可见,所有螺钉位于载距突内,有2例穿透上方骨皮质,无螺钉穿出载距突下方、前方及后方骨皮质。 结论　采用跟骨内侧定位法,在自主设计的导向器引导下,可提高载距突螺钉置入的准确性,降低螺钉进入关节、跟骨内侧皮质等并发症。     

跟骨内侧定位载距突螺钉导向器的研制与初步评价

目的　探讨从跟骨内侧定位、经载距突置入导向针后,由跟骨外侧壁置入载距突螺钉的可行性及精确度,为临床手术方案设计及导向器械的研发改进提供参考依据。 方法　选取10具20侧成人尸体标本,在跟骨外侧做“L”形延长切口,暴露跟骨外侧结构及距下关节,采用自主研发的“跟骨内侧定位载距突螺钉导向器”辅助载距突螺钉置入。首先,从内侧将“定位针”置入距下中关节,将导向器“内侧臂”的“定位孔”套牢定位针,调整“内侧臂”使“导向通道”位于载距突中心,安装“外侧臂”与“手柄”固定。调整“外侧臂”位置,经“导向通道”从内向外穿入跟骨一枚“导向针”,C臂透视提示“导向针”位置理想后,自跟骨外侧壁沿“导向针”用空心钻钻孔,测深后拧入合适的载距突螺钉。最后行CT扫描,利用CT图像评估置入螺钉的精确度。过程中采集相关数据,评估导向器的功能。 结果　肉眼观察标本,所有的导向针位于载距突内,其中65%位于载距突中心,25%偏下方,10%偏后方。在内侧,75%的导向针穿过胫后肌腱,15%位于胫后肌和趾长屈肌腱之间,10%穿经趾长屈肌腱上1/3。在外侧,导向针出针点与跟骰关节的距离为（38.03±5.60）mm,与后关节面的距离为（15.01±3.38）mm,螺钉平均长度为（44.80±3.59）mm。CT扫描图像可见,所有螺钉位于载距突内,有2例穿透上方骨皮质,无螺钉穿出载距突下方、前方及后方骨皮质。 结论　采用跟骨内侧定位法,在自主设计的导向器引导下,可提高载距突螺钉置入的准确性,降低螺钉进入关节、跟骨内侧皮质等并发症。     

Anatomic variations of the musculotendinous junction of the soleus muscle and its clinical implications

The soleus muscle, like the gastrocnemius, is a powerful plantarflexor muscle in the lower limb. The soleus muscle joins the aponeurosis of the gastrocnemius muscle to form the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon. While the basic anatomy of the soleus muscle has been previously described, no study has addressed the anatomical variations of its distal attachment. We found considerable anatomic variation in the distance between this musculotendinous junction and the most proximal point of the proximal edge. This distal measuring point was defined as the most proximal point of the proximal edge of the posterior surface of the calcaneal tuberosity. Eighty human cadaver specimens were preserved according to Thiel's method; we examined one limb from each cadaver, studying 80 lower extremities in total. Following careful dissection of the lower limb, we measured the distance between the distal point of attachment of the soleus muscle fibers (the musculotendinous junction) and the designated measuring point. Our findings were divided into three groups: Group 1 (10 cases, 12.5%), where the distance between the musculotendinous junction and the designated point on the calcaneal tuberosity was between 0 and 1 inches; Group 2 (56 cases, 70%), where the distance was between 1 and 3 inches; and Group 3 (14 cases, 17.5%), where the distance was greater than 3 inches. Detailed knowledge of the anatomic variations of the soleus muscle at its insertion point onto the calcaneal tendon has clinical implications in calcaneal tendon repair following rupture and in the planning of reconstructive surgery using soleus muscle flaps.     

Piriformis and obturator internus morphology: a cadaveric study

Preservation of piriformis during exposure of the hip joint via a posterior approach may result in a lower rate of dislocation following total hip arthroplasty. The aim of this study was to identify anatomical variations in the tendons of piriformis and obturator internus which could inform piriformis sparing approaches to the hip. Twenty-nine proximal femora from 15 cadavers, 5 male and 10 female aged 65-79 years, were examined. Tendon crossing angles, location and mode of insertion to the greater trochanter and the extent of fusion between tendons prior to insertion were noted. The mean (and associated standard deviation) of the vertical and horizontal widths of the piriformis tendon were 4.78 ± 1.31 mm and 7.35 ± 1.74 mm, respectively. The mean (and associated standard deviation) of the vertical and horizontal widths of the obturator internus tendon were 6.87 ± 1.61 mm and 5.72 ± 1.38 mm, respectively. The mean distances of the anterior and posterior margins of the piriformis tendon insertion from the posterior limit of the greater trochanter, defined as a percentage of the anteroposterior length of the greater trochanter, were 63.3% ± 9.4% and 43.0% ± 9.4%, respectively. Equivalent mean distances for the obturator internus insertion were 73.0% ± 6.6% and 55.9% ± 7.0%, respectively. On the basis of the relationship between the piriformis and obturator internus tendons in terms of the angle and point at which they cross, in addition to any degree of tendon fusion, four classifications were identified. This study shows that the most posterior margins of the piriformis and obturator internus attachments are located more than one-third of the way along the greater trochanter, suggesting that current osteotomies would not include these external rotators in the majority of cases.     

Tensile properties of a morphologically split supraspinatus tendon

The supraspinatus tendon consists morphologically of two sub‐regions, anterior and posterior. The anterior sub‐region is thick and tubular while the posterior is thin and strap‐like. The purpose of this study was to compare the structural and mechanical properties of the anterior and posterior sub‐regions of the supraspinatus tendon. The supraspinatus tendons from seven human cadaveric shoulders were morphologically divided into the anterior and posterior sub‐regions. Length, width, and thickness were measured. A servo‐hydraulic testing machine (MTS Systems Corporation, Minneapolis, MN) was used for tensile testing. The maximal load at failure, modulus of elasticity and ultimate tendon stress were calculated. Repeated measures were used for statistical comparisons. The mean anterior tendon cross‐sectional area was 47.3 mm² and the posterior was 32.1 mm². Failure occurred most often at the insertion site: anterior (5/7) and posterior (6/7). All parameters of the anterior sub‐region were significantly greater than those of the posterior sub‐region. The moduli of elasticity at the insertion site were 592.4 MPa in the anterior sub‐region and 217.7 MPa in the posterior (P = 0.01). The ultimate failure loads were 779.2 N in the anterior sub‐region and 335.6 N in the posterior (P = 0.003). The ultimate stresses were 22.1 MPa in the anterior sub‐region and 11.6 MPa in the posterior (P = 0.008). We recognized that the anterior and posterior sub‐regions of the SSP tendon have significantly different mechanical properties. In a future study, we need to evaluate how best to repair an SSP tendon considering these region‐specific properties. Clin. Anat. 27:702–706, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Relationship between the hip joint capsule and piriformis tendon in a simulation of the modified Watson‐Jones anterolateral approach in THA cadaver study

Fifteen fresh frozen cadavers were used for a simulation of the modified Watson‐Jones anterolateral approach in an anatomical study. Several parameters were measured to evaluate the relation between the piriformis tendon insertion and hip joint capsule insertion. The anteroposterior diameter of the piriformis tendon was found to be greater than the medial–lateral diameter, and that the posterior part of the incised hip joint capsule is distant from the piriformis tendon as the piriformis is inserted into the extra‐articular portion. We also found that it was important not to dissect the anteroproximal portion of the greater trochanter to prevent rupture of the piriformis tendon, whereas the posterior portion was relatively safe. Clin. Anat. 26:610–613, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

带血供半腱肌肌腱条骨块重建后交叉韧带的应用解剖

目的　为带血供骨 半腱肌肌腱条骨块转位重建后交叉韧带 (PCL)提供应用解剖学基础。方法　在 5 0侧成人下肢标本上观测半腱肌肌腱的形态、血供来源、分支及分布特点和股骨内侧髁及后交叉韧带的形态 ;2侧新鲜下肢标本进行摹拟术式。结果　半腱肌腱长约 15 2cm× 0 5cm× 0 4cm ,血供主要来源于动脉的半腱肌支、膝下内侧动脉的腱支和腱外周组织血管网。肌门位于半腱肌外后 ,距股骨内上髁上方约 3 6cm ;后交叉韧带长约 3 6cm× 1 0cm× 0 6cm ;股骨内侧髁关节面中点前后径约为 4 3cm ,左右径约为 3 0cm。结论　半腱肌肌腱与后交叉韧带形态相似、有足够的游离长度。血供丰富为多源性。故采用带血供的半腱肌肌腱条骨块是重建后交叉韧带较理想的替代物。     

Morphometric measurements from various reference points in the orbit of male Caucasians

The aim of this study was to determine the morphometric variations from various reference points to decrease risks in orbital surgery. Sixty-two orbits obtained from 31 skulls of male adult Caucasians were measured with a millimetric compass. On the medial orbital wall, the midpoint of the anterior lacrimal crest was the reference point; from this point we measured distances of 23.9+/-3.3 mm, 35.6+/-2.3 mm, 41.7+/-3.1 mm and 6.9+/-1.5 mm respectively to the anterior ethmoidal foramen, posterior ethmoidal foramen, midpoint of the medial aspect of the optic canal and posterior lacrimal crest. On the same wall, distances from the plane of the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina to the ethmoido-maxillary suture and distance from the posterior ethmoidal foramen to the anterior ethmoidal foramen and midpoint of the medial margin of the optic canal were 14.9+/-2.3 mm, 9.8+/-2.9 mm and 6.8+/-2.2 mm respectively. On the inferior orbital wall, the main reference point was the infraorbital foramen, and from this point to the midpoints of the lateral margin of the fossa for the lacrimal gland, inferior orbital fissure, inferior orbital rim and inferior aspect of the optic canal was 23.8+/-7.2 mm, 31.9+/-3.9 mm, 6.7+/-1.9 mm and 50.3+/-3.2 mm respectively. On the superior orbital wall, the distances from the supraorbital foramen to the midpoints of the superior orbital fissure, fossa for the lacrimal gland and superior aspect of the optic canal were 45.7+/-3.6 mm, 26.0+/-2.5 mm and 45.3+/-3.2 mm respectively. Furthermore, on the same wall, the distance from the posterior ethmoidal foramen to the midpoint of the superior orbital fissure was 14.6+/-2.8 mm. Finally, on the lateral orbital wall the frontozygomatic suture was the reference point. From this point distances to the midpoints of the fossa for the lacrimal gland, superior orbital fissure, lateral aspect of the optic canal and inferior orbital fissure were 17.5+/-2.1 mm, 37.7+/-3.6 mm, 44.9+/-2.5 mm and 33.4+/-3.1 mm respectively.     

肾后筋膜内侧附着的CT解剖及其意义

目的：研究肾后筋膜的内侧附着点和肾旁后间隙的内侧边界。方法：回顾性分析64例CT扫描资料和临床资料完整的腹膜后间隙炎性病变的连续性病例，其中经手术病理证实29例；经临床综合指标及抗炎治疗随访显效而诊断者35例。着重观察肾后筋膜的内侧附着和肾旁后间隙的内侧边界。结果：（1）在肾上极以上水平，双侧肾后筋膜内侧均附着于腰方肌筋膜；（2）90．62％（58例）显示左侧肾后筋膜内侧在肾下极水平或锥下间隙水平附着于腰大肌筋膜外后方；（3）95.31％（61例）显示右侧肾后筋膜内侧在肾下极水平或锥下间隙水平附着于腰大肌筋膜外后方；（4）双侧肾后筋膜内侧附着点并不总是一致；（5）双侧肾旁后间隙内侧界主要分成两部分，为腰方肌或腰方肌和部分腰大肌。结论：（1）肾后筋膜的内侧附着点不是固定不变的，两侧肾后筋膜内侧附着情况也不一致；（2）肾旁后间隙内侧边界随肾后筋膜内侧附着点的改变而发生变化。     

指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱止点的解剖研究

目的　通过解剖研究指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱在远节指骨基底掌侧和背侧止点平面的差别，为西摩骨折发生机制提供解剖学依据。 方法　手部残肢10具，其中左手3例，右手7例，均为男性患者，年龄24~58岁。2~5指分别有10指，全部手指无外伤手术史、无畸形。自远节指间关节水平掌侧及背侧分别切开，于末节指骨水平分离各指的指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱，记录其与末节指骨掌侧及背侧关节面的距离，比较指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱在末节指骨掌、背侧的止点水平。 结果　指深屈肌腱止点近端至关节面距离：示指（2.19±0.27）mm，中指（2.50±0.14）mm，环指（2.23±0.16）mm，小指（1.83±0.19）mm；指伸肌腱止点近端至关节面距离：示指（0.12±0.02）mm，中指（0.18±0.02）mm，环指（0.12±0.05）mm，小指（0.06±0.01）mm；各指差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。指深屈肌腱止点中点至关节面距离：示指（3.73±0.45）mm，中指（4.33±0.45）mm，环指（3.53±0.46）mm，小指（3.16±0.41）mm；指伸肌腱止点中点至关节面距离：示指（1.77±0.06）mm，中指（1.76±0.20）mm，环指（1.77±0.06）mm，小指（1.47±0.10）mm；各指差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。 结论　指伸肌腱在末节指骨基底的止点较指深屈肌腱的止点距关节面更近，为西摩骨折的发生机制提供了解剖依据。     

指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱止点的解剖研究

目的　通过解剖研究指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱在远节指骨基底掌侧和背侧止点平面的差别,为西摩骨折发生机制提供解剖学依据。 方法　手部残肢10具,其中左手3例,右手7例,均为男性患者,年龄24~58岁。2~5指分别有10指,全部手指无外伤手术史、无畸形。自远节指间关节水平掌侧及背侧分别切开,于末节指骨水平分离各指的指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱,记录其与末节指骨掌侧及背侧关节面的距离,比较指深屈肌腱及指伸肌腱在末节指骨掌、背侧的止点水平。 结果　指深屈肌腱止点近端至关节面距离：示指（2.19±0.27）mm,中指（2.50±0.14）mm,环指（2.23±0.16）mm,小指（1.83±0.19）mm;指伸肌腱止点近端至关节面距离：示指（0.12±0.02）mm,中指（0.18±0.02）mm,环指（0.12±0.05）mm,小指（0.06±0.01）mm;各指差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。指深屈肌腱止点中点至关节面距离：示指（3.73±0.45）mm,中指（4.33±0.45）mm,环指（3.53±0.46）mm,小指（3.16±0.41）mm;指伸肌腱止点中点至关节面距离：示指（1.77±0.06）mm,中指（1.76±0.20）mm,环指（1.77±0.06）mm,小指（1.47±0.10）mm;各指差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。 结论　指伸肌腱在末节指骨基底的止点较指深屈肌腱的止点距关节面更近,为西摩骨折的发生机制提供了解剖依据。     

The fibulocalcaneus (peroneocalcaneus) internus muscle of MacAlister: Clinical and surgical implications

A fibulocalcaneus (peroneocalcaneus) internus (PCI) muscle (of MacAlister) was identified and photographed in the left leg of a 78-year-old Caucasian female cadaver. This case study provides the first gross anatomical photo of this anomalous leg muscle and represents the first gross anatomical dissection of this muscle since 1914. The PCI muscle arose from the distal third of the fibula, posterior intermuscular septum of the leg, and flexor hallucis longus muscle. The PCI muscle inserted into the inferior surface of the medial calcaneus distal to the coronoid fossa, a small depression between the anterior tuberosity and the anterior apex of the sustentaculum tali. This insertion point differs from the historical literature, which commonly refers to the muscle inserting into the inferior surface of the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus or simply distal to the sustentaculum tali into the medial aspect of the calcaneus. The PCI muscle is one of the least common muscular variants associated with the ankle joint, and it has been implicated in posterior ankle pain and impingement, as well as involvement in tarsal tunnel syndrome. This muscle is often confused with the flexor digitorum accessorius longus (FDAL) muscle. Additionally, this study describes ways to differentiate between the PCI and FDAL muscles in the lower leg. Radiologists and clinicians should be aware of this anomalous muscle when considering various diagnoses, interpreting radiographs, and pursuing surgical intervention to relieve posterior ankle symptoms.     

Systematization of the vesical and uterovaginal efferences of the female inferior hypogastric plexus (pelvic): applications to pelvic surgery on women patients

Objective To locate and describe the various efferences of the plexus in order to make it easier to avoid nerve lesions during pelvic surgery on women patients through a better anatomical knowledge of the inferior hypogastric plexus (IHP). Materials and methods We dissected 27 formalin embalmed female anatomical subjects, none of which bore any stigmata of subumbilical surgery. The dissection was always performed using the same technique: identification of the inferior hypogastric plexus, whose posterior superior angle follows on from the hypogastric nerve and whose top, which is anterior and inferior, is located exactly at the ureter’s point of entry into the base of the parametrium, underneath the posterior layer of the broad ligament. Results The IHP is located at the level of the posterior floor of the pelvis, opposite to the sacral concavity. Its top, which is anterior inferior, is at the point of contact with the ureter at its entry into the posterior layer of the broad ligament. The uterovaginal, vesical and rectal efferences originate in the paracervix. Three efferent nerves branch, two of them from its top and the third from its inferior edge: (1) A vaginal nerve, medial to the ureter, follows the uterine artery and divides into two groups: anterior thin, heading for the vagina and the uterus; posterior, voluminous, heading in a superior rectal direction (=superior rectal nerve). (2) A vesical nerve, lateral to the ureter, divides into two groups, lateral and medial. (3) The inferior rectal nerve emerges from the inferior edge of the IHP, between the fourth sacral root and the ureter’s point of entry into the base of the parametrium. Conclusion The ureter is the crucial point of reference for the IHP and its efferences and acts as a real guide for identifying the anterior inferior angle or top of the IHP, the origin of the vaginal nerve, the level of the ureterovesical junction and the division of the vesical nerve into its two medial and lateral branches. Dissecting underneath and inside the ureter and the uterine artery involves a risk of lesion of the vaginal nerve and its uterovaginal branches. Further forward, between the intersection and the ureterovesical junction, dissecting and/or coagulating under the ureter involves a risk of lesions to the vesical nerve, which are likely to explain the phenomena of denervation of the anterior floor encountered after certain hysterectomies and/or surgical treatments of vesicoureteral reflux.