围手术期血糖控制的相关问题

高血糖可对机体产生严重不良影响,糖尿病患者手术并发症发生率和病死率明显增加．手术应激引起的高血糖和胰岛素抵抗也可产生同样不良后果．围手术期患者的代谢状态、麻醉方法、外源性葡萄糖输注、应激引起的神经内分泌反应及胰岛素抵抗等均可影响围手术期血糖的水平,且造成患者临床结局不良。严格血糖控制与降低手术后患者死亡率和并发症发生率的关系尚不明确。血糖控制对围手术期患者是必须的．但是控制的理想状态仍需要多中心临床试验证据的支持。目前普遍认为围手术期血糖控制在10mmol／L以下即可．严格血糖控制的有效性及安全性有待进一步观察。     

Perioperative management of blood glucose during open heart surgery in infants and children

The perioperative management of blood glucose has been controversial since clinical associations between hyperglycemia and adverse outcomes were first reported more than two decades ago. Despite some early evidence supporting a causal relationship between hyperglycemia and adverse outcomes, prospective trials of tight glycemic control have been inconclusive, except in selected populations, like adult diabetics. These trials have consistently reported dramatic increases in the incidence and severity of hypoglycemia, which may also have associated adverse outcomes. Bedside glucose monitors typically used to manage glucose have increasingly been found to introduce systematic inaccuracies. Relevant studies of infants and children undergoing cardiac surgery are considerably fewer in number, requiring clinicians to extrapolate from other clinical conditions and patient populations.     

Perioperative control of blood glucose level in cardiac surgery

It is well recognized that poor perioperative blood glucose (BG) control can increase the risk of infection, cardiovascular accidents, and even death in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Since it has been reported that tight BG control (80–110 mg/dL) yields better outcomes in critically ill patients, it became a standard of care to control BG using intravenous insulin infusion in ICU. However, it has been debated in terms of the optimal target range whether a strict control with intensive insulin therapy is better than liberal control. Because strict BG control can often cause hypoglycemia, which in turn increases the hospital mortality. In fact, a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials concluded that tight BG control was not associated with significantly reduced hospital mortality but was associated with an increased risk of hypoglycemia. According to the current published guidelines, it seems to be optimal to control BG level of 140–180 mg/dL in ICU. In terms of more strict BG control (110–140 mg/dL), it may be appropriate in selected patients as long as this can be achieved without significant hypoglycemia.     

Perioperative blood glucose management in patients undergoing tumor hepatectomy

Study ObjectiveTo determine whether our institutional insulin management (modified Atlanta) protocol is efficient and safe in controlling blood glucose levels in the perioperative period in surgical patients undergoing tumor hepatectomy.DesignRetrospective study.SettingLarge community hospital.Patients20 consecutive patients undergoing liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma, liver metastasis, or other hepatobiliary tumors.Interventions and MeasurementsAll patients continuously received intravenous glucose (5% dextrose in water, one mL/kg/hr); insulin was administered according to a strict algorithm, and dose adjustments were based on measurements of whole-blood glucose intraoperatively at one-hour intervals, and in the intensive care unit (ICU). Lower and upper blood glucose limits were set at 85 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL, respectively, in the operating room (OR). In the ICU, lower and upper limits were 90 mg/dL and 140 mg/dL, respectively.Main ResultsIntraoperatively, 51.3% of measurements were within the target range. In the ICU, 75.2% of measurements showed a blood glucose level of 90 - 140 mg/dL. Two of 78 (2.6%) and two of 363 (0.5%) measurements had a blood glucose level < 70 mg/dL in the OR and ICU, respectively. The lowest blood glucose levels were 65 mg/dL (OR) and 66 mg/dL (ICU).ConclusionsThe modified Atlanta protocol is efficient and safe in controlling blood glucose levels in the perioperative period of hepatic tumor resection. Because of decreased insulin needs in the ICU, the use of a more liberal algorithm successfully reduced the risk of hypoglycemia.     

Elevated initial blood glucose levels and poor outcome following severe brain injuries in children

To determine whether elevations in blood glucose levels were related to neurologic outcomes following severe brain injuries in children, 54 patients 16 years of age or younger admitted to a regional trauma center with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 8 or less over a 2-year period were retrospectively reviewed. The mean initial blood glucose level on hospital admission was significantly higher in the 16 patients with outcomes of death or vegetative state in comparison with that of the 38 patients with outcomes of good recovery, moderate disability,or severe disability (288 mg/100 mL vs. 194 mg/100 mL, t = -2.74, p = 0.01). Blood glucose levels correlated significantly with indicators of the severity of the brain injury, which were also related to outcome. In contrast, blood glucose levels did not correlate with indicators of the severity of the extracranial injuries, although the latter were significantly related to outcome. Logistic regression analysis resulted in a model for prediction of outcome which included the Glasgow Coma Scale score on admission and the initial blood glucose level. The odds ratio of a poor outcome in this model in patients with blood glucose levels greater than or equal to 250 mg/100 mL relative to those with lower levels was 8.3 (95% confidence interval 1.3-53.6). A simple prognostic score was derived from the logistic regression which improved upon the prediction of outcome using the Glasgow Coma Scale score alone in those patients with initial blood glucose levels greater than or equal to 250 mg/100 mL.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Perioperative autotransfusion with salvage blood in cancer surgery]

OBJECTIVES: Intraoperative blood cells salvage using a Cell Saver technique is controversial in oncologic surgery because tumor cells could be aspirated and reinfused to the patient. The goal of this review was to discuss the risk associated with this technique, and the way to minimize it. DATA SOURCES: A review of the literature has been made by questioning PubMed site (http://nbci.nlm.nih.gov) on the period of 1968 to 2000. The key words were: intraoperative blood salvage, blood transfusion, autologous, cancer. Cases reports have been excluded. STUDY SELECTION: Tumor cells aspirated and reinfused have been numbered in both experimental and clinical studies. In clinical studies, the outcome after intraoperative cells salvage/reinfusion has been compared to published data or historical groups of allogeneic transfusion, all in non randomized studies. DATA SYNTHESIS: Both experimental and clinical studies confirmed the presence of cancer cells in the blood either aspirated or reinfused. However, six clinical studies with limited number of patients did not show metastatic spread associated with Cell Saver. The addition of leukocyte filters reduces greatly this quantity of cancer cells. Irradiation of the pack did not destroy tumor cells but blocked their proliferative capacity. In the other hand, some infiltrative tumors were shown to have permanent cancer cells seeding, quantitatively superior to the seeding observed when a Cell Saver is used. CONCLUSION: It seems reasonable to use the Cell Saver in oncologic surgery, if possible with a leukocyte filter, not only in case of unexpected major bleeding (consensus), but also in programmed cases with high risk of huge hemorrhage.     

Perioperative assessment of blood lactate levels in pediatric heart surgery

Measuring arterial lactate concentration is a prompt, easy and relatively non-invasive way to estimate tissue oxygen metabolism. We evaluated whether perioperative levels of the arterial lactate concentrations can reflect the general severity of a pediatric patient's condition. A consecutive series of 112 patients, aged 5 days to 17 years (median age: 12 months), admitted to our pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) following cardiac surgery under cardiopulmonary bypass were studied. Arterial blood lactate concentration was measured preoperatively, immediately upon termination of the cardiopulmonary bypass (postCPB), immediately following the operation, and 16th hours postoperatively (D1). Trends within arterial lactate concentrations were examined in relation to mortality rates, the duration of PICU stays and the patient's ages. The studied population had a mortality rate of 5.7% (6 patients). Lactate levels increased significantly and exceeded 4.0 mmol.l-1 during postCPB measurements in a majority of the patients. The increases in lactate levels are affected by the changes in interorgan blood flow, blood glucose levels and/or blood pH in addition to the effects of the CPB-priming lactated Ringer's solution. Thus, higher cut off values have to be determined, and lower probabilities assigned, when using postCPB lactate levels to predict the severity of an outcome. Significantly and sustained increases in D1 lactate levels were noted in neonates, patients with longer PICU stays (> 15 days) and those died later. Hyperlactemia greater than 2.2 mmol.l-1 at D1 predicted death with a sensitivity of 82% and a specificity of 72%. The measurement of early postoperative lactate levels, reflecting postoperative ability to eliminate intraoperative hyperlactemia, is a better way of assessing the severity of a pediatric patient's condition following cardiac surgery. The ideal time to measure early postoperative lactate levels should be determined by further research.     

1型糖尿病患儿自我血糖监测现状及影响因素调查

目的调查1型糖尿病患儿出院后自我血糖管理现状及其影响因素,提高其自我管理能力。方法对68例1型糖尿病患儿进行门诊及电话随访6个月,采用血糖自我管理日记收集资料。结果每个月最多仅2例患儿能做到每天进行自我血糖监测,月监测血糖总例次数由第1个月的997例次下降为第6个月的336例次;3个月及6个月糖化血红蛋白均值分别为(8.93±1.96)%及(8.52±2.05)%;患儿月血糖监测次数与家庭月收入、父母学历呈正相关(均P0.01),与患儿年龄呈负相关(P0.01)。结论1型糖尿病患儿出院后血糖自我监测状况不理想,其可能的相关因素为家庭经济状况不佳,父母文化程度较低所导致的对疾病治疗的理解力较差以及青春期患儿的逆反或自卑心理引起的依从性降低。社会、家庭及医护人员均应为提高1型糖尿病患儿自我血糖监测的依从性积极努力。     

Serum gastrin and blood glucose levels during halothanenitrous oxide anaesthesia and strabismus surgery in children

The purpose of this study was to determine whether serum gastrin levels are increased by reflexogenic stimuli applied to the extrinsic muscles of the eye. Serum gastrin and blood glucose concentrations were measured in ten normal children aged between 5 and 12 yr during general anaesthesia with halothane and nitrous oxide and during strabismus surgery. Fasting basal concentrations of gastrin (33.6 +/- 14.8 pg.ml-1) and of glucose (4.43 +/- 0.72 mmol.L-1) were in the normal range of values for children. Intravenous atropine (0.01 mg.kg-1), general anaesthesia with halothane in nitrous oxide and oxygen by mask for three minutes, tracheal intubation, extraocular muscle stimulation and surgical stress did not cause any variation in the mean serum gastrin concentration. On the contrary, tracheal intubation and surgical stress increased blood glucose concentrations (P less than 0.05). There was no difference in the serum gastrin levels after extraocular muscle stimulation between children with positive or negative oculocardiac reflexes (44.5 +/- 16.7 pg.ml-1 vs 38 +/- 14.7 pg.ml-1, respectively). The incidence of vomiting predischarge was 60 per cent. Serum gastrin levels did not differ between children who vomited and children who did not (44.3 +/- 18.5 pg.ml-1 vs 47.1 +/- 16.9 pg.ml-1, respectively). Vomiting after strabismus surgery cannot be attributed to high gastrin serum levels. Consequently, it is unlikely that vomiting after strabismus surgery is linked to an "oculogastric reflex" with the vagus nerve as the efferent pathway.     

大鼠胃旁路术前糖化血红蛋白水平与术后降糖效果的相关性研究

目的 分析影响Goto-Kakizaki(GK)大鼠Roux-en-Y胃旁路术后降糖效果的相关因素.方法 回顾性分析GK大鼠术前(0周)、术后1、3、6、12、24周摄食量、体质量、空腹血糖及术前(0周)、术后4、12、24周各时间点糖化血红蛋白(HbAlc)水平,探讨影响胃旁路术后降糖效果的相关性因素.依据术前HbAlc水平将GK大鼠分为A组,HbAlc 6.5％～7.9％;B组,HbAlc 8.0％～9.9％;C组,HbAlc＞ 10％,以评估术前HbAlc水平与胃旁路术后降糖效果之间的相关性.结果 与术前相比,大鼠术后1～24周空腹血糖、HbAlc均明显下降(P＜0.01),术后24周时空腹血糖由(12.1 ±3.0)mmol/L下降到(7.6±1.3)mmol/L,HbAlc由(9.2％±1.8％)下降到(6.3％±0.8％).治愈组与好转组相比,术前空腹血糖分别为(11.1±2.2)、(15.8±2.3)mmol/L,HbAlc分别为(8.6％±1.4％)、(11.5％±1.4％),两组之间相比差异有统计学意义(均P＜0.01),而两组大鼠术前摄食量及体质量之间相比差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).非条件Logistic逐步回归分析显示术前HbAlc对该手术的治愈率与好转率有预测价值(P＜0.01).A组与C组、B组与C组降糖效果相比差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01),而A组与B组相比差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 GK大鼠术前HbAlc水平与胃旁路术后降糖效果具有相关性,且术前HbAlc＜ 10％时降糖效果较好.     

Perioperative pain therapy. Deficiencies in children and adolescents]

Present studies reveal that postoperative pain management for children is still insufficient in Germany. This situation is not only caused by a lack of knowledge, but, mainly, by a deficiency of standardized protocols in the hospitals and the lack of administrative responsibility. This article describes a specific concept for postoperative pain management in children. It basically focuses on three main topics: prevention of pain, the algorithm for analgesic treatment and the evaluation of the efficiency of the treatment. The surgeon plays a central role in pain prevention. By intraoperative blocking of the peripheral nerves, he can achieve effective analgesia. Postoperatively, he prescribes a basic medication according to the procedure used and the surgical trauma. Its effectiveness must be measured routinely thereafter and, depending on the score, an individual pain medication should be added. Pain measurement in children requires the application of specific scales for each age group. The evaluation of this concept has revealed therapeutic success, broad acceptance and efficiency in ward use. However a long-term benefit can only be achieved when postoperative pain management is one of the essential duties of the surgeon and it is constantly monitored within a department.     

Intestinal electrical stimulation decreases postprandial blood glucose levels in rats

BackgroundReducing postprandial blood glucose concentrations in diabetic patients might contribute to optimal glycemic control. Gastrointestinal electrical stimulation has been proposed as a novel therapy for both gastrointestinal motility disorders and obesity. The present study investigated the effects and underlying mechanisms of intestinal electrical stimulation (IES) on postprandial blood glucose levels in rats.MethodsElectrical stimulation electrodes were implanted into the duodenal wall of 33 male Sprague-Dawley rats. The blood glucose and insulin levels were measured before and after a glucose tolerance test both with and without electrical stimulation. In addition, the gastric emptying and intestinal flow rates were measured.ResultsIES applied immediately after the glucose tolerance test caused a significant decrease in the rising phase slope and the maximal serum blood glucose level. Additionally, the area under the curve of the blood glucose levels was reduced by approximately 50%. Insulin secretion decreased by 21%. The main reduction in insulin secretion was during the first 30 minutes after the glucose tolerance test. IES also caused a nearly 80% decrease of the gastric emptying rate and a 40% increase in the flow rate of nutrients inside the intestine. The effect was immediate after IES activation and reversible.ConclusionThese results suggest that IES applied to the duodenum can reduce postprandial blood glucose levels. The possible etiology is the modulating of gastric emptying and intestinal flow rate.     

Closed-loop control of blood glucose levels in critically ill patients

A closed-loop control system was constructed for automatic intravenous infusion of insulin to control blood sugar levels (BSL) in critically ill patients. We describe the development of the system. A total of nine subjects were recruited to clinically test the control system. In the patients who underwent closed-loop control of BSL, the controller managed to control only one patient's glycaemia without any manual intervention. The average BSL attained during closed-loop control approached the target range of 6-10 mmol/l, and had less deviation than when BSL had been maintained manually. We conclude that closed-loop BSL control using a sliding scale algorithm is feasible. The main deficiency in the current system is unreliability of the subcutaneous glucose sensor when used in this setting. This deficiency mandates high vigilance during use of the system as it is being developed.     

Perioperative anxiety in children

Objectives & Aim: The purpose of this investigation was to examine children’s anxiety across the perioperative setting. Background: Although several studies have examined preoperative anxiety in children, few researchers have illustrated perioperative anxiety; that is, anxiety in children throughout the pre and postoperative continuum. Methods: Participants were 261 children ages 2–12. Anxiety was rated prior to surgery, immediately after surgery, and for 2 weeks at home following surgery. Results: Low child sociability and high parent anxiety predicted perioperative anxiety. Perioperative anxiety was related to postoperative pain and negative postoperative behavioral change. Conclusions: Identification and prevention of anxiety in children can help prevent negative outcomes following surgery.