全麻肿瘤病人硬膜外超前镇痛与术后镇痛效果的比较研究

目的:观察全麻肿瘤手术病人硬膜外超前注入吗啡、氟哌利多的术后镇痛效果。方法:ASAⅠ-Ⅱ级择期上腹部手术病人40例,硬膜外穿刺成功注利多卡因5ml获确切阻滞平面后保留导管。随机分成两组。对照组于术终缝皮时经硬膜外导管注吗啡2mg、氟哌利多2.5mg;超前注药组于全麻诱导前经硬膜外导管注同剂量吗啡、氟哌利多。用视觉模拟评分(VAS)法评定术后4h、8h、12h、24h、48h、72h疼痛程度和术后镇痛时间。结果:术后镇痛时间对照组为28.42±13.73h;超前注药组20.81±19.17h,两者无显著差异(P>0.05)。VAS评分两组无差,VAS评分峰值超前注药组较对照组前移。结论:全麻肿瘤手术病人诱导前硬膜外注吗啡、氟哌利多与术终注同种药相比,镇痛效果无显著差异,而超前注药术后镇痛时间有提前和缩短趋势,提示在完善的全麻下,硬膜外注吗啡“超前镇痛”的作用尚待进一步研究。     

盐酸戊乙奎醚联合氟哌利多降低吗啡硬膜外术后镇痛的不良反应

目的观察盐酸戊乙奎醚联合氟哌利多对吗啡用于硬膜外术后镇痛不良反应发病率的影响。方法连续硬膜外麻醉行子宫下段剖宫产手术的患者96例,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,随机分为单纯吗啡组(A组)、吗啡 氟哌利多组(B组)、吗啡 盐酸戊乙奎醚组(C组)及吗啡 盐酸戊乙奎醚 氟哌利多组(D组),每组24例。术毕5min分别将各组吗啡混合液各自注入硬膜外腔后拔出硬膜外导管回病房,记录术后镇痛效果及术后恶心呕吐(PONV)、皮肤瘙痒、尿潴留、口干等不良反应。结果D组的镇痛效果明显优于A、B、C组(P<0.01),且PONV、皮肤瘙痒等不良反应发病率明显低于A、B、C组(P<0.05)。结论盐酸戊乙奎醚联合氟哌利多可明显降低吗啡用于硬膜外术后镇痛不良反应的发病率。     

硬膜外氟哌利多与吗啡剖宫产术后镇痛及对产妇泌乳的影响

临床常用硬膜外注入吗啡用于术后镇痛 ,效果确切 ,但不良反应较多。作者加用氟哌利多行剖宫产病人术后镇痛 ,并就镇痛效果及其对产妇泌乳的影响进行分组观察。资料与方法一般资料　选择ASAⅠ～Ⅱ级足月妊娠初产妇 12 0例 ,年龄 2 1～ 30岁 ,无乳房发育缺陷及内分泌疾病 ,其中剖宫产90例 ,阴道自然分娩 30例。麻醉与镇痛　 12 0例产妇均分为四组 ,每组 30例。Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ组为剖宫产妇 ,均选择连续硬膜外麻醉 ,穿刺间隙为L1～ 2 或L2～ 3 ,局麻药为 1 5 %～ 2 %盐酸利多卡因 ,阻滞平面在T6以下。关闭腹腔后 ,Ⅰ组从硬膜外导管注入吗啡1 6mg+…     

氯胺酮与吗啡超前镇痛对内脏牵拉痛及术后镇痛的影响

目的探讨氯胺酮与吗啡复合液硬膜外超前镇痛对抑制手术内脏牵拉痛的影响及术后镇痛情况的影响。方法60例ASAⅠ~Ⅱ级择期全子宫切除术患者,均于硬膜外麻醉下行全子宫切除术。随机分为两组,每组30例,即Ⅰ组(对照组):术前不施行超前镇痛;Ⅱ组(实验组):切皮前10 min将氯胺酮30 mg与吗啡2 mg用生理盐水稀释成5 ml注入硬膜外腔。所有患者术后均行自控硬膜外镇痛(PCEA)。镇痛药物为0.15%罗哌卡因+5 mg吗啡,共100 ml。观察两组患者术中牵拉反应、术后镇痛情况及并发症。结果Ⅱ组用药对抑制术中牵拉痛的效果明显优于Ⅰ组(P<0.01);Ⅱ组PCEA泵首次触发时间较Ⅰ组显著延长(P<0.01),48 h内有效触发次数显著减少(P<0.01),24 h PCEA泵总用量明显减少(P<0.05),术后并发症无明显差异。结论氯胺酮与吗啡硬膜外超前镇痛能明显抑制术中牵拉痛,提供良好的术后镇痛效果,减少阿片类药物的用量。     

罗哌卡因联合曲马多术后硬膜外镇痛疗效观察

我院应用罗哌卡因联合曲马多术后硬膜外镇痛,并就镇痛效果、并发症与罗哌卡因联合吗啡进行比较。资料与方法一般资料选择腹部手术40例,男26例,女14例,年龄(40.2±7.2)岁,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,随机均分为两组,Ⅰ组行罗哌卡因联合曲马多硬膜外镇痛,Ⅱ组行罗哌卡因联合吗啡硬膜外镇痛。方法两组患者均术前肌注苯巴比妥钠0.1g、阿托品0.5mg。于T8～12或L1～2间行硬膜外腔穿刺置管,术中硬膜外腔间断注入1.5%利多卡因 0.2%地卡因维持麻醉。术毕Ⅰ组患者硬膜外注入0.25%罗哌卡因5ml加曲马多100mg,接镇痛泵,内含0.125%罗哌卡因100ml、曲马多800mg、氟哌利…     

吗啡复合布比卡因硬膜外给药术后镇痛效果观察

比较术后硬膜外腔注入吗啡和布比卡因复合液不同方法的镇痛效果和不良反应。资料与方法一般资料　 2 0例患者ＡＳＡⅠ～Ⅱ级 ,年龄 2 1～ 81岁 ,体重 33～ 72ｋｇ ,在硬膜外阻滞或硬膜外阻滞复合浅全麻下 ,择期作胸腹部手术 ,术前肺功能无明显异常 ,随机分为两组 ,每组 10例。Ａ组在术后硬膜外腔注入吗啡 1 5ｍｇ + 0 2 %布比卡因 5ｍｌ。术后硬膜外腔注药Ｂ组与Ａ组同 ,但其后接镇痛泵按 2 1ｍｌ/ｈ速度持续注入镇痛复合液 ( 10 0ｍｌ内含0 75 %布比卡因 2 0ｍｌ、吗啡 5ｍｇ、氟哌利多 2 5ｍｇ)至术后48小时。比较两组　 ( 1)在给药后…     

芬太尼、吗啡、丁丙诺啡复合局麻药分别行硬膜外术后镇痛效果观察对比

目的 :探讨术后分别应用芬太尼、吗啡、丁丙诺啡复合局麻药及氟哌利多行硬膜外自控镇痛 ,观察其镇痛效果及不良反应发生率 ,综合比较哪种药物配方更理想。方法 :选择ASAⅠ～Ⅱ级 ,年龄 2 2～ 30岁 ,体重无较大差异的妇产科手术病人 6 0例 ,随机分为A、B、C三组 (每组 2 0例 ) ,均行硬膜外麻醉。术后接止痛泵行PCEA。单次剂量 1ml,锁定时间 2 0min ,术后随访 2d。结果 :从镇痛效果比较 ,A组为 50 % ,B组 75% ,C组为 80 %。结论 :芬太尼配方组不良反应少 ,但镇痛效果差 ;吗啡配方组镇痛好 ,但不良反应发生率高 ;丁丙诺啡组镇痛效果最好 ,不良反应发生率低 ,故选用丁丙诺啡 0 .6mg ,氟哌利多 2 .5mg ,复合 0 .1 1 2 5%布比卡因 1 0 0ml行妇产科手术后PCEA是一种较理想的药物配方。     

氟哌利多减轻吗啡所致恶心呕吐的临床观察

60例全麻开胸手术病人随机分为3组,每组20例。A组(对照组):吗啡用量0.025 mg/kg/h;B组:吗啡用量同A组,加氟哌利多5 mg;C组:吗啡用量同A组,加氟哌利多10mg。采用美国百特“便携式Infusor输注泵”2C1008K型,均匀流量2mg/h,配制术后48小时的镇痛药液96 ml,记录术后4、8、12、24、48小时镇痛、镇静、恶心呕吐的情况。结果显示三组均有较理想的镇痛效果,镇静作用B组、C组明显高于A组(P<0.05);恶心呕吐的发生率B组、C组明显低于A组(P<0.01)。所以本文结果提示氟哌利多加入吗啡药液中能明显减少病人恶心呕吐的发生。     

不同浓度罗比卡因术后硬膜外镇痛效果的观察

目的 比较三种不同浓度罗比卡因伍用芬太尼及氟哌利多用于术后硬膜外镇痛效果。方法 60例择期下肢手术病人,随机分为0.25％罗比卡因组(Ⅰ组)、0.20％罗比卡因组(Ⅱ组)和0.15％罗比卡因组(Ⅲ组),均复合芬太尼(5μg／ml)和氟哌利多(0.025mg／ml),硬膜外自控镇痛(PCEA),速率2ml／h。以VAS评分比较三组术后PCEA的镇痛效果,Bromage评分评定运动阻滞情况。结果 术后6、12、24和48h VAS评分,Ⅲ组显著高于Ⅰ、Ⅱ组;Bromage评分Ⅰ组显著高于Ⅱ、Ⅲ组。无明显不良反应。结论 0.20％罗比卡因复合芬太尼和氟哌利多对下肢手术病人术后镇痛效果确切,适合临床应用。     

单次剂量吗啡复合罗比卡因用于剖宫产术后PCEA的效果评价

目的 用单次剂量吗啡复合持续剂量不同浓度罗比卡因应用于剖宫产术后硬膜外自控镇痛（patient controlled epidural analgesia,PCEA)，与持续剂量吗啡和罗比卡因相比较，寻求一种减少吗啡用量，更适合下腹部手术的硬膜外自控镇痛方法。方法 80例ASAⅠ-Ⅱ级行子宫下段剖宫产的产妇，随机分为四组，单次剂量吗啡分三组；SMR0.1组，0.1%罗比卡因；SMR0.2组，0.2%罗比卡因，SMR0.05组，0.05%罗比卡因，三组均先单次静注吗啡1mg 氟哌利多持续硬膜外给药，观察产妇24小时内VAS，镇静评分，Prine Henry评分，改良Bromage分级的变化，PONV等不良反应的发生率，记录产妇24小时内用药量。结果 VAS评分；CM组，SMR0.2组大于SMR0.1组，SM0.05组和CM组。SMR0.1组，SMR0.05组尿潴留，排气时间延长发生率明显低于SMR0.2组，CM组，结论 1mg吗啡单次给药复合维持剂量0.1%罗比卡因用于剖宫产术后PCEA能够取得良好的镇痛效果。感觉-运动阻滞分离效果好，不良反应少。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.