Upregulation of GAD65 mRNA in the medulla of the rat model of metabolic syndrome

Although alterations in the function of the neurotransmitter system have been implicated in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the mechanisms that underlie this pathological change are not well understood. Beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is a key protease in the generation of beta-amyloid, an important trigger protein in the pathogenesis of AD. The expression and activity of BACE1 are increased in the brains of sporadic AD patients, and a role for BACE1 in neurotransmission has been suggested recently. This study examines whether BACE1 plays a role in regulated exocytosis in PC12 cells. Treatment of PC12 cells with a beta-secretase inhibitor reduced stimulus-dependent secretion of neurotransmitters, suggesting a potential role of BACE1 in regulated exocytosis. Using transfected human growth hormone as a reporter for a regulated secretory pathway in PC12 cells, we found that the transient overexpression of BACE1 increased basal secretion in the absence of a stimulus and reduced stimulus-dependent secretion in intact PC12 cells. In digitonin-permeabilized PC12 cells, an overexpression of BACE1 enhanced the Ca2+-independent and ATP-independent component of the secretory pathway. Furthermore, expression of the glycosylation-deficient mutant of BACE1, BACE1N354Q, led to an elevation of basal secretions over that by BACE1 wild-type, suggesting a role of BACE1 glycosylation in basal secretion. These results demonstrate an unknown role for BACE1 in secretion, and suggest that elevated levels of BACE1 in AD brains may contribute to the altered neurotransmitter pathology of AD through stimulation of spontaneous basal secretion under resting conditions.     

β-淀粉样蛋白(1-42)对PC12细胞的氧化损伤

目的：探讨Aβ（1-42）对PC12细胞的氧化损伤作用。 方法: 利用不同浓度的Aβ(1-42)处理PC12细胞，采用MTT法、抗氧化酶活性测定以及RT-PCR分析观察Aβ(1-42)对PC12细胞的影响，分析Aβ(1-42)与SeGPx、MnSOD基因表达的关系。 结果: 随着Aβ(1-42)浓度的增加，SeGPx的表达不断下降；0.1 μmol/L Aβ(1-42)能诱导MnSOD的活性增加，Aβ(1-42) 对PC12的损伤作用能被acetovanilon（一种抑制内源性自由基产生的化合物）所抑制。 结论: Aβ(1-42)能介导PC12细胞内源性自由基的产生增多。     

Absence of A673T variant in APP gene indicates an alternative protective mechanism contributing to longevity in Chinese individuals

A673T, a rare variant in the amyloid-β precursor protein gene, shows a protective potential against Alzheimer's disease (AD) and age-related cognitive decline in an Icelandic population. Although A673T was observed independently in a Finnish population, this variant was absent in 8721 Asian subjects. The conflicting observations suggest that the contribution of A673T may be confined to Europeans and Americans rather than Asians. Nevertheless, A673T confers a protective function against AD and thus may be observed only in longevity subjects; thus it is not surprising to see its absence when the general populations or the patient cohorts were considered. To test whether the A673T contributes to the Chinese population, 1237 healthy longevity subjects (mean age 96.9 years) and 1404 matched younger controls (mean age 44.2 years) were genotyped for the variant. Our study failed to observe this variant in either the longevity subjects or the controls. Given the previous observation from Asians, our results suggest that the A673T variant is not involved in longevity in Chinese individuals; some other protective mechanisms may contribute to a lower incidence of AD in Chinese nonagenerians and centenarians.     

The thiol antioxidant 1,2-dithiole-3-thione stimulates the expression of heat shock protein 70 in dopaminergic PC12 cells

In Parkinson's disease (PD), the pathogenic factors oxidative stress and protein aggregation interact and culminate in the apoptotic death of (mainly catecholaminergic) neurons. The dithiolethiones comprise thiol antioxidants that are well known for their activation of the expression of a wide collection of cytoprotective genes, including genes coding for antioxidant enzymes. Given the observation that heat shock proteins (HSPs), in particular the heat shock protein 72 (HSP72), protects against cellular degeneration in various models of PD, the ability of the unsubstituted dithiolethione 1,2-dithiole-3-thione (D3T) to stimulate heat shock protein gene and protein expression was studied using the dopaminergic PC12 cell line. As anticipated, D3T stimulated the expression of the antioxidant enzyme NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1). Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that D3T stimulates the expression of the inducible, cytoplasmic HSP72. Moreover, D3T strongly potentiated HSP72 gene and protein expression in heat-stressed cells. Taken together, our data show that, in addition to antioxidant enzymes, D3T stimulates the expression of HSP72, a chaperone shown to be neuroprotective in various models of PD, in particular under conditions of cellular stress. Thus, the broad range manipulation of endogenous cellular defense mechanisms, through D3T, may represent an innovative approach to therapeutic intervention in PD.     

Fifty Hertz electromagnetic field exposure stimulates secretion of beta-amyloid peptide in cultured human neuroglioma

Recent epidemiological studies raise the possibility that individuals with occupational exposure to low frequency (50-60 Hz) electromagnetic fields (LF-EMF), are at increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the mechanisms through which LF-EMF may affect AD pathology are unknown. We here tested the hypothesis that the exposure to LF-EMF may affect amyloidogenic processes. We examined the effect of exposure to 3.1 mT 50 Hz LF-EMF on Abeta secretion in H4 neuroglioma cells stably overexpressing human mutant amyloid precursor protein. We found that overnight exposure to LF-EMF induces a significant increase of amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) secretion, including the isoform Abeta 1-42, without affecting cell survival. These findings show for the first time that exposure to LF-EMF stimulates Abeta secretion in vitro, thus alluding to a potential link between LF-EMF exposure and APP processing in the brain.     

The role of synaptic activity in the regulation of amyloid beta levels in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. Accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides is regarded as the critical component associated with AD pathogenesis, which is derived from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleavage. Recent studies suggest that synaptic activity is one of the most important factors that regulate Aβ levels. It has been found that synaptic activity facilitates APP internalization and influences APP cleavage. Glutamatergic, cholinergic, serotonergic, leptin, adrenergic, orexin, and gamma-amino butyric acid receptors, as well as the activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc) are all involved in these processes. The present review summarizes the evidence for synaptic activity-modulated Aβ levels and the mechanisms underlying this regulation. Interestingly, the immediate early gene product Arc may also be the downstream signaling molecule of several receptors in the synaptic activity-modulated Aβ levels. Elucidating how Aβ levels are regulated by synaptic activity may provide new insights in both the understanding of the pathogenesis of AD and in the development of therapies to slow down the progression of AD.     

CEPO对6-OHDA诱导PC12细胞损伤的保护作用

目的探讨氨甲酰化促红细胞生成素(CEPO)对6-羟基多巴胺(6-hydroxydopamine,6-OHDA)诱导PC12细胞损伤及凋亡的保护作用及其可能机制。方法借助CCK8、流式细胞(Flow cytometry,FCM)、Western-blotting和逆转录PCR(RT-PCR)技术检测PC12模型细胞相关指标的变化,实验数据以SPSS15软件统计分析。结果 CCK8结果显示6-O-HDA处理能够显著降低PC12模型细胞的存活率,而CEPO处理对其变化显示抑制作用;FCM技术探察结果显示,6-OHDA处理能够明显诱导PC12模型细胞的损伤与凋亡,而CEPO预处理能够减轻PC12模型细胞的损伤与凋亡(P<0.05);借助Western-blotting技术探察显示6-OHDA+CEPO处理组的PC12细胞的Cleaved caspase-3蛋白表达量显著低于6-OHDA处理组(P<0.05);RT-PCR结果显示,6-OHDA处理明显降低PC12模型细胞的Bcl-2 mRNA的表达(P<0.05)以及上调PC12模型细胞的Bax mRNA的表达(P<0.01),而CEPO处理明显上调Bcl-2 mRNA的表达水平(P<0.05)以及抑制Bax mRNA的表达(P<0.05)。结论CEPO处理能够显著抑制6-OHDA所诱导的PC12细胞的损伤及凋亡,其作用机制可能与其上调Bcl-2,并下调Bax和Caspase-3的表达有关。     

Plasma β amyloid and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in Down syndrome

Extracellular deposition of amyloid beta peptide (Aβ) has been implicated as a critical step in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In Down syndrome (DS), Alzheimer's disease is assumed to be caused by the triplication and overexpression of the gene for amyloid precursor protein (APP), located on chromosome 21. Plasma concentrations of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 were determined in a population based study of 506 persons with DS, who were screened annually for dementia. We used Cox proportional hazards models to determine the risk of dementia. Demented persons with DS have a significantly higher plasma Aβ1-40 concentration than the nondemented (p = 0.05). Those with the highest concentrations of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 have a higher risk to develop dementia. The risk to develop dementia during follow-up (mean 4.7 years) increased to 2.56 (95% confidence interval, 1.39-4.71) for Aβ1-42 and 2.16 (95% confidence interval, 1.14-4.10) for Aβ1-40. High plasma concentration of plasma Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 are determinants of the risk of dementia in persons with DS.     

Protective effect of trihexyphenidyl on hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in PC12 cells

The protective effect of trihexyphenidyl (THY) on hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage was investigated in the rat pheochromocytoma line PC12 cells. Following the exposure of PC12 cells to H(2)O(2), there was a reduction in cell survival, activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and mitochondria membrane potential (MMP), in contrast, the increased levels in Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, malondialdehyde (MDA) production and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as intracellular [Ca(2+)]i level were observed. However, preincubation of cells with THY prior to H(2)O(2) exposure attenuated all the changes mentioned above, THY exhibited protective effect against H(2)O(2)-induced toxicity in PC12 cells, indicating that the compound may be a potential therapeutic agent for the diseases influenced by oxidative damage.     

槲皮素抑制鱼藤酮诱导的PC12细胞凋亡

目的: 探讨槲皮素对鱼藤酮诱导的PC12细胞凋亡的影响及其作用机制。方法: 运用鱼藤酮诱导损伤PC12细胞,经300 μmol/L槲皮素预处理后,观察细胞形态学改变,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率,Western blotting检测Bax和Bcl-2蛋白的表达,JC-1染色检测细胞线粒体膜电位,比较各组的差异。结果: 与鱼藤酮组相比,槲皮素加鱼藤酮处理组细胞形态明显改善,凋亡率降至6.3%(P<0.01),Bcl-2表达增加(P<0.01),Bax表达降低(P<0.01),线粒体膜电位上升(P<0.01)。结论: 槲皮素对鱼藤酮诱导的PC12细胞凋亡具有抑制作用,上调Bcl-2和下调Bax蛋白的表达,维持线粒体膜电位可能是其作用的机制之一。     

传代培养PC12细胞的分泌特性及PENK基因表达的研究

目的观察PC12细胞传代培养中的生长情况,检测培养液中去甲肾上腺素(NE)和甲硫氨酸脑啡肽(M-EK)的分泌水平及细胞前脑啡肽(PENK)基因的表达情况,为细胞移植镇痛的研究提供实验依据。方法PC12细胞在DMEM+15%胎牛血清中培养,酶法消化传代;采用高效液相色谱-电化学检测法检测培养液中NE的浓度;采用放射免疫法检测培养液中M-EK的浓度;采用反转录PCR检测细胞PENK mRNA的表达。结果传代培养PC12细胞的基础分泌:NE为(465.8±78.5)pg/mL,M-EK为(4.3±0.66)pg/mL;PENK低水平表达。结论PC12细胞在传代培养过程中,可合成和分泌NE和M-EK,并可检测到PENK基因的表达,为细胞移植镇痛提供新的细胞来源。     

细胞外信号调节激酶在TPPB促进PC12产生可溶性淀粉样前体蛋白中的作用

目的：观察在蛋白激酶C(PKC)激动剂TPPB促进可溶性淀粉样前体蛋白(sAPPα)释放过程中参与的信号转导通路。方法:以1 μmol/L的TPPB作用于PC12细胞3 h，同时加入信号转导通路的抑制剂，Western印迹法检测上清液内sAPPα的含量和细胞外信号调节激酶(p42/44MAPK)及磷酸化的p42/44MAPK的表达。结果:1 μmol/L的TPPB作用于PC12细胞3 h可以显著增加上清液内sAPPα的含量，细胞外信号调节激酶抑制剂U0126、c-Jun氨基末端激酶抑制剂SP600125和蛋白酪氨酸激酶抑制剂genistein可以部分消除此作用；而p38MAPK抑制剂SB203580对sAPPα的含量无显著影响。1 μmol/L的TPPB可以使磷酸化的p42/44MAPK表达增加，而对总的p42/44MAPK无显著影响。结论:细胞外信号调节激酶、c-Jun氨基末端激酶和蛋白酪氨酸激酶可能参与TPPB促进sAPPα生成的过程。     

Effect of scoparone on neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells

The neurite outgrowth-promoting effects of scoparone isolated from the stem bark of Liriodendron tulipifera were investigated in PC12 cells. At a concentration of 200 microM, scoparone markedly induced neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells. Scoparone at 200 microM also enhanced the outgrowth of neurites from cells in the presence of nerve growth factor (NGF, 2 ng/ml). The levels of intracellular cyclic AMP and concentration of Ca2+ were also increased by 200 microM scoparone. In addition, scoparone at 200 microM increased the activities of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC) and Ca2+/calmodulin kinase II (CaMK II). However, scoparone-induced neurite outgrowth was blocked by a mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor (U0126), a PKA inhibitor (H89), a PKC inhibitor (GF109203X) and a CaMK II inhibitor (KN62). These kinase inhibitors also reduced the scoparone-induced neurite outgrowth associated with NGF. These results suggest that scoparone can induce neurite outgrowth by stimulating the upstream steps of ERK, PKA, PKC and CaMK II in PC12 cells.     

Calcium regulates the interaction of amyloid precursor protein with Homer3 protein

Ca²⁺ dysregulation is an important factor implicated in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. The mechanisms mediating the reciprocal regulation of Ca²⁺ homeostasis and amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism, function, and protein interactions are not well known. We have previously shown that APP interacts with Homer proteins, which inhibit APP processing toward amyloid-β. In this study, we investigated the effect of Ca²⁺ homeostasis alterations on APP/Homer3 interaction. Influx of extracellular Ca²⁺ upon treatment of HEK293 cells with the ionophore A23187 or addition of extracellular Ca²⁺ in cells starved of calcium specifically reduced APP/Homer3 but not APP/X11a interaction. Endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ store depletion by thapsigargin followed by store-operated calcium entry also decreased the interaction. Interestingly, application of a phospholipase C stimulator, which causes inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ release, caused dissociation of APP/Homer3 complex. In human neuroblastoma cells, membrane depolarization also disrupted the interaction. This is the first study showing that changes in Ca²⁺ homeostasis affect APP protein interactions. Our results suggest that Ca²⁺ and Homers play a significant role in the development of Alzheimer's disease pathology.     

Age-dependent increase in lysosome-associated membrane protein 1 and early-onset behavioral deficits in APPSL transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) is strongly related to the onset of Alzheimer's disease. It possesses cleavage sites for β- and γ-secretases, and the resulting cleaved products (amyloid-β peptides) are capable of causing neurotoxicity. Such cleavage is promoted by the Swedish and London mutations (APPSwe/Lon) inside the APP gene. Here, we characterized APPSL transgenic mice (APPSL-Tg) to determine the effects of this mutation. We observed that both the amount of insoluble amyloid-β and the ratio of amyloid-β 42/40 increased promptly in the brain during 6–16 months of age. Amyloid-β plaques were observed in whole brain sections at 12 months. In contrast, the spatial memory assessed by the Morris water maze task was already impaired at 3 months, which suggested that the APPSL-Tg mice may represent an early-onset model of familial Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the levels of LAMP-1, a marker protein of lysosome, increased in the brain at 28 months. Such LAMP-1 protein was detected around the amyloid-β plaques at the hippocampal regions of the APPSL-Tg mice. Our results suggested that the increase in LAMP-1 was enhanced by the accumulation of amyloid-β occurring during aging. Our findings coincided with the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease.     

Nardilysin prevents amyloid plaque formation by enhancing α-secretase activity in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide, the main component of senile plaques in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), is derived from proteolytic cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretases. Alpha-cleavage of APP by α-secretase has a potential to preclude the generation of Aβ because it occurs within the Aβ domain. We previously reported that a metalloendopeptidase, nardilysin (N-arginine dibasic convertase; NRDc) enhances α-cleavage of APP, which results in the decreased generation of Aβ in vitro. To clarify the in vivo role of NRDc in AD, we intercrossed transgenic mice expressing NRDc in the forebrain with an AD mouse model. Here we demonstrate that the neuron-specific overexpression of NRDc prevents Aβ deposition in the AD mouse model. The activity of α-secretase in the mouse brain was enhanced by the overexpression of NRDc, and was reduced by the deletion of NRDc. However, reactive gliosis adjacent to the Aβ plaques, one of the pathological features of AD, was not affected by the overexpression of NRDc. Taken together, our results indicate that NRDc controls Aβ formation through the regulation of α-secretase.     

Calpastatin overexpression attenuates amyloid-beta-peptide toxicity in differentiated PC12 cells

Amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) plays a major role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Abeta is toxic to neurons, possibly through causing initial synaptic dysfunction and neuronal membrane dystrophy, promoted by increased cellular Ca(2+). Calpain (Ca(2+)-dependent protease) and caspase have been implicated in AD. Previously, we used calpain and caspase pharmacological inhibitors to study effects of Abeta25-35 (sAbeta) on neuronal-like differentiated PC12 cells. We reported that sAbeta-treated cells exhibited calpain activation and protein degradation (due to both calpain and caspase-8). We have now found that overexpression of the calpain specific inhibitor calpastatin in differentiated PC12 cells significantly inhibited the sAbeta-induced calpain activation and decreased the protease activity. Calpastatin overexpression inhibited the sAbeta-promoted degradation of fodrin, protein kinase Cepsilon, beta-catenin (membrane structural proteins and proteins involved in signal transduction pathways), and prevented the sAbeta-induced alteration of neurite structure (manifested by varicosities). Overexpression of calpastatin also inhibited Ca(2+)-promoted calpain activation and protein degradation; this is consistent with the notion that the Abeta-induced increase in calpain activity results from a rise in cellular Ca(2+), provided the calpastatin level is not so high as to strongly inhibit calpain. Carrying out transfection without selection allowed the comparison in the same culture of calpastatin-overexpressing with non-overexpressing cells. In cultures transfected with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-calpastatin plasmid, calpastatin overexpression (indicated by GFP-labeling) led to inhibition in sAbeta-induced membrane propidium iodide (PI) permeability, whereas non-transfected, GFP-unlabeled cells exhibited PI permeability. Overall, the results demonstrate that the effects of Abeta-toxicity studied here were attenuated to a large extent by calpastatin overexpression, indicating that the protease calpain is involved in Abeta-toxicity (obviating a primary, direct role for caspases). Increased expression of calpastatin and/or decrease in calpain may serve as one of the means for ameliorating some of the early symptoms of AD.     

Roscovitine促进增殖期PC12细胞凋亡

目的探讨细胞周期蛋白依赖激酶（CDK）抑制剂Roscovitine导致增殖期PC12细胞死亡的性质和CDK调控的细胞周期与细胞凋亡的关系。方法利用培养的增殖期PC12细胞模型，进行MTT细胞活性检测、Hoechst 33342胞核荧光染色和倒置显微镜观察。结果分别用5、10、20、50和100μmol／L浓度的Roscovitine溶液处理细胞12h，细胞存活率呈剂量依赖性下降；另外，50μmol／L浓度的Roscovitine分别处理细胞4、12、24和48h，细胞死亡也呈现时间依赖性。细胞死亡的形态学表现是细胞皱缩、核染色体固缩和核碎片形成。结论Roscotivine导致的增殖期PC12细胞凋亡与CDK调控的细胞周期蛋白有关。     

人app基因转染PC12细胞及效果检测

目的研究转染人app基因后PC12细胞的生物学性状变化和检测app基因在受体细胞中的蛋白表达水平。方法用脂质体转染对数生长期的PC12细胞,细胞分为3组:转染PCDNA3的正常对照组,app转染组和变异的V642Iapp转染组。用G418筛选阳性细胞,建立稳定表达的细胞株。采用Western印迹法检测目的基因蛋白质的表达情况。使用细胞形态学方法、MTT法观察转染后对生长的影响。结果Western印迹法显示,转染app和V642Iapp组有人的APP蛋白表达。细胞形态无明显改变,MTT测定转染后细胞的倍增时间和生长时间没有因为目的基因的导入而改变。结论正常条件下培养,过度表达人的APP对细胞的形态、倍增时间和生长无明显影响。