Symptomatic tracheal stenosis in burns

Tracheal stenosis in burns is rare and usually results from prolonged intubation or tracheostomy. Inhalation injury itself has the potential risk of tracheal stenosis. We reviewed the records of 1878 burn patients during 1987 to 1995 and found seven with tracheal stenosis (0.37%) after an average of 4.4 years follow up. There were 4 males and 3 females with an average age of 27.3 years. The tracheal stenosis developed 1-22 months after burn (average 7 months). Five patients had their inhalation injury confirmed by bronchoscopic examination. The incidence of tracheal stenosis among inhalation injury patients was 5.49% (5/92). Six patients needed intubation in the initial stage either for respiratory distress or prophylaxis, with an average duration of 195.2 h. In addition to prolonged intubation, the presence of inhalation injury, repeated intubations and severe neck scar contractures are also contributors to tracheal stenosis in burns. We favor T-tube insertion as the first treatment choice; permanent tracheostomy was unsatisfactory in our study.     

Tracheostomies in burn patients.

The use of tracheostomies in burned patients with inhalation injuries is now reserved for specific indications rather than as prophylactic airway management. A 5-year burn center experience with tracheostomies used in this fashion is presented. Ninety-nine tracheostomies were performed in 3246 patients who had indications of prolonged respiratory failure or acute loss of airway. Although colonization of the sputum was universal, neither rates of pulmonary sepsis nor mortality were significantly increased in patients who underwent tracheostomies. Twenty-eight patients developed late upper airway sequelae, including tracheal stenosis (TS), tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF), and tracheoarterial fistula (TAF). Duration of intubation correlated only with development of TAF, whereas patients in whom TEF developed were significantly older and more likely to have evidence of tracheal necrosis at the time of tracheostomy. The pathogenesis of upper airway sequelae in these patients as divergent responses to the combined insults of inhalation injury, infection, and intubation is considered.     

Upper airway compromise after inhalation injury. Complex strictures of the larynx and trachea and their management.

OBJECTIVE: Strictures of the upper airway caused by burns have features distinct from other benign stenoses. The authors reviewed their experience with burn-related stenoses to define the principles of treatment. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: The combined effects of inhaled gases and heat in burn victims produce an intense, often transmural, inflammation of the airway, further complicated by intubation. The incidence of laryngotracheal strictures in survivors of inhalation injury is high, but the reported experience with their treatment is limited and often unduly separated into injuries of larynx and trachea. METHODS: Presentation, treatment, and long-term follow-up are reviewed in 9 women and 9 men age 9 to 63 years, who were evaluated over a 22 year period for chronic airway compromise after inhalation injury. There were 18 tracheal stenoses, 14 subglottic strictures, and 2 main bronchial stenoses. Laryngotracheal strictures stenosis. T-tubes were placed in 15 patients, in low subglottic or tracheal stenosis below the vocal cords, in high subglottic stenosis through the vocal cords, and as a stent after resection of subglottic stenosis. RESULTS: There were two deaths during follow-up, one from respiratory failure and one from an unrelated cause. Two patients underwent evaluation only. Early in this series, one tracheal and one laryngotracheal resection resulted in prompt restenosis. Of the remaining 14 patients, 9 are without airway support from 2 to 20 years later. Four have permanent tracheal tubes. One patient required tracheostomy 8 years after successful subglottic reconstruction. CONCLUSIONS: Strictures of the upper airway related to inhalation injury are associated with prolonged inflammation and involve larynx and trachea in a majority of patients. These complex injuries respond to prolonged tracheal stenting (mean, 28 months) and resection or stenting of subglottic stenoses with recovery of a functional airway and voice in most patients. Early tracheal resection should be avoided.     

Tracheotomietechniken

Due to the comprehensive establishment of modern techniques, tracheostomy has become a routine procedure in intensive care units (ICU). The negative effects of prolonged translaryngeal intubation on the laryngeal and tracheal mucosa up to tracheal stenosis can be reduced by tracheostomy. Furthermore, long-term ventilation is facilitated; however, there is no clear evidence on the optimal timing of tracheostomy in critically ill patients. The specific indications and contraindications of surgical as well as percutaneous tracheostomy must be strictly observed for a safe and successful intervention. Exchanging the tracheostomy tube may lead to potentially dangerous situations especially after percutaneous tracheostomy. A standardized and structured approach is therefore recommended.     

Intubación en dos pacientes con vía aérea difícil y estenosis traqueal tras traqueostomía en cirugía torácica

Lung isolation in thoracic surgery is a challenge, this is even more complex in the presence of unknown tracheal stenosis (TS). We report two cases of unknown TS and its airway management. TS appears most frequently after long term intubation close to the endotracheal tube cuff or in the stoma of tracheostomy that appears as a consequence of the granulation tissue after the surgical opening of the trachea. Clinical history, physical examination, difficult intubating predictors and imaging tests (CT scans) are crucial, however most of tracheal stenosis may be unnoticed and symptoms depend on the degree of obstruction. In our cases, the patients presented anatomical changes due to surgery and previous tracheostomy that led to a TS without symptoms. There is scarce literature about the intubation in patients with previous tracheostomy in thoracic surgery. In the first case, a Univent^® tube was used using a flexible fiberscope but an acute tracheal hemorrhage occurred. In the second case, after intubation with VivaSight SL^® in an awake patient, the insertion of a bronchial blocker was performed through an endotracheal tube guided by its integrated camera without using flexible fiberscopy.     

Conservative treatment of tracheal injuries

Tracheal injuries, independent of their origin, may be life-threatening. Surgical repair is regarded as the treatment of choice but has not been compared with other approaches. We hypothesized that defects bridgeable by an artificial airway may enable conservative treatment. We report on five patients with tracheal injuries, two in the trachea's upper third resulting from trauma and intubation and three in its middle third after percutaneous dilational tracheostomy. Tracheal defects were bridged by endotracheal or tracheostomy tubes under bronchoscopic guidance and the cuff was inflated distal to the lesion. Air leakage stopped immediately and all tracheal defects healed without further interventions. No case of stenosis or mediastinitis was observed. These results suggest that treating tracheal injuries conservatively by placing an artificial airway under bronchoscopic guidance may be effective and offers a convenient starting position for secondary surgical repair in selected patients when conservative treatment fails.     

Bougienage and balloon dilation using a conventional tracheal tube for tracheobronchial stenosis before stent placement

In order to achieve urgent restoration of the airways in tracheobronchial stenosis and to make stent placement simpler and safer, we developed a method that allows combined bougienage and balloon dilation via the use of a conventional tracheal tube. Fifteen patients with tracheobronchial stenosis underwent bougienage and balloon dilation using a tracheal tube with a cuff attached, inserted via a tracheostomy, before stent placement. The conventional tracheal tube was inserted via a tracheostomy, the cuff was expanded at the stenotic site, and the tube was fixed to the tracheostomy and left in place for a few days until sufficient dilation was achieved. This procedure was conducted on the trachea in 10 patients, the left main bronchus in three patients, and the right main bronchus in two patients. In all patients, the procedure immediately relieved the obstructive symptoms and dilated the stenosis sufficiently. Thereafter, Dumon stents were inserted in 10 patients, dynamic stents in four patients, and an expandable metallic stent in one patient. The stents were introduced easily with no other dilation procedure after a mean of 5 days from the start of the procedure. For tracheobronchial stenosis, bougienage and balloon dilation using a tracheal tube with an integral cuff via a tracheostomy is a simple and safe method for achieving both urgent relief of airway stenosis and dilation before stent placement. Received: 20 May 1999/Accepted: 17 December 1999/Online publication: 25 April 2000     

Acquired tracheal stenosis in infants and children

Acquired tracheal stenosis in childhood is frequently difficult to manage because of poor healing, infection, and scarring. In a 10-year period, 62 patients (4 weeks to 14 years of age) were treated for acquired tracheal stenosis. The causes of stenosis were endotracheal intubation (44 patients), caustic aspiration (6 patients), recurrent infection (5 patients), bronchoscopic perforation (4 patients), and gastric aspiration (3 patients). The subglottic or upper trachea was involved in 47 patients, mid portion in 8, and distal or carinal area in 7. Fifty children underwent tracheostomy as part of the therapy, and 12 were managed without tracheostomy. Therapy was individualized, frequently sequentially, utilizing rigid or balloon dilatation (20 patients), bronchoscopic electrocoagulation resection (44 patients), steroid injection (48 patients), T tube stent (8 patients), resection with anastomosis (12 patients), cricoid split (3 patients), and rib cartilage graft (12 patients). Most patients required several techniques and repeated procedures to eventually achieve decannulation. Seven patients (11%) died of unrelated causes. Forty-four of 55 surviving patients (80%) are without tracheostomy, although 14 have required continued endotracheal treatment after tracheostomy removal (dilatation, endotracheal resection). This series demonstrates that acquired tracheal stenosis in childhood is a common, difficult problem, but manageable with the use of a variety of techniques. Resection and grafting procedures should be reserved for cases in which less complex modalities fail.     

Bedside Percutaneous Tracheostomy: Clinical Comparison of Griggs and Fantoni Techniques

Elective tracheostomy is widely considered the preferred airway management of patients on long-term ventilation. In addition to open tracheostomy, a number of percutaneous procedures have been introduced during the last two decades, among them techniques according to Griggs (guidewire dilating forceps, or GWDF) and to Fantoni (translaryngeal tracheostomy, or TLT). The aim of the study was to evaluate these two techniques in terms of perioperative complications, risks, and benefits in critically ill patients. A series of 100 critically ill adult patients on long-term ventilation underwent elective percutaneous tracheostomy, either according to the Griggs (n= 50) or Fantoni (n= 50) technique. Tracheostomy was performed under general anesthesia at the patient's bedside. The mean (±SD) operating times were short, 9.2 ± 3.9 minutes (TLT) and 4.8 ± 3.7 minutes (GWDF) on average. Perioperative complications were noted in 4% of patients during either TLT or GWDF and included massive bleeding, mediastinal emphysema, posterior tracheal wall injury, and pretracheal placement of the tracheostomy tube. With regard to oxygenation, pre- and postoperative arterial oxygen tension divided by the fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO₂/FiO₂) ratios did not vary significantly, and no perioperative hypoxia was noted regardless of the technique used. We conclude that both TLT and GWDF represent attractive, safe alternatives to conventional tracheostomy or other percutaneous procedures if carefully performed by experienced physicians and under bronchoscopic control.     

Prospective evaluation of the retrograde percutaneous translaryngeal tracheostomy (Fantoni procedure) in a surgical intensive care unit: technique and results of the Fantoni tracheostomy

BACKGROUND: Controversy surrounds the safety and practicality of the retrograde percutaneous translaryngeal tracheostomy (Fantoni procedure) compared with other percutaneous methods. METHODS: We used the Fantoni tracheostomy for 245 patients in our intensive care unit (ICU) over a period of 3 years 6 months and conducted a prospective analysis. RESULTS: We are able to report a low incidence of complications (1.2%) with the Fantoni procedure. Advantages of the method are reduced tissue trauma and optimal adaptation of the stoma to the cannula, leading to less stomal bleeding and fewer infectious complications. We observed no procedure-related mortality. Under mandatory bronchoscopic control, proper puncture location and cannula placement are ensured, which prevents tracheal wall injury and paratracheal placement of the cannula. CONCLUSIONS: Our experience shows that the major advantage of the use of the Fantoni tracheostomy is the retrograde dilatation of the stoma, which prevents serious complications compared with other techniques.     

Tension pneumothorax associated with re-intubation through percutaneous tracheostoma site

Percutaneous tracheostomy (PT) has become popular recently, but occasionally cannula exchange can be difficult and hazardous. A 55-year-old woman with pontine hemorrhage was admitted to our ICU after oral intubation. On the 3 rd day, PT was performed with no complication to prepare for prolonged airway management. On the 14 th day, surgical removal of the pontine hematoma was scheduled. Since our neurosurgeon requested a prone position with maximal neck anteflexion, she was re-intubated orally and the tracheostomy cannula was removed during the operation. At the end of the operation, the tracheostoma had already been narrowed and re-insertion of a narrower tracheostomy cannula was unsuccessful even with bronchoscopic guidance. Following several attempts, her Spo2 gradually decreased and her blood pressure dropped. A chest X-ray showed right pneumothorax and a chest drainage tube was inserted. Posterior tracheal wall injury was suspected, though the exact injury site was not identified bronchoscopically. She was treated conservatively because no air leak was observed after advancing the oral tube. Three weeks later, surgical tracheostomy was performed without major abnormal findings. A small tracheostoma characteristic of PT might be associated with an increased risk of delayed airway complication. Cannula exchange should be performed more carefully after PT compared with surgical tracheostomy.     

Bronchoscopy and anesthesia for preschool-aged patients: a review of 228 cases

Pediatric bronchoscopy is a complicated, high-risk procedure. From May 2000 to May 2002, we performed bronchoscopy in 228 preschool-aged children (newborn to 6 years old) under general anesthesia with a Storz-Hopkins rigid pediatric bronchoscope. The final diagnosis and complications during anesthesia were recorded. The most common findings from bronchoscopic examination were subglottic stenosis (or granuloma) (67, 29.4%), laryngomalacia (64, 28.1%), tracheal stenosis (or malacia) (29, 12.7%), pneumonia (23, 10.1%), and atelectasis (16, 7.0%). The main complications during anesthesia were arrhythmias, oxygen desaturation, and CO2 retention (high end-tidal CO2). The most serious complication was pneumothorax in one patient. Either endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy was required in 61% of the patients in this series to secure a patent airway after bronchoscopy. Bronchoscopy is necessary as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool for certain airway diseases or anomalies in pediatric patients. It requires cooperation between the endoscopist and anesthesiologist to insure the patient's safety.     

Acute airway management. Role of cricothyroidotomy

Thirty-four cases of emergency cricothyroidotomy performed formed from September 1984 through January 1988 are reviewed. Thirty-one of the cases were required out of 2,200 acute-trauma patients. The indication for cricothyroidotomy was inability to establish an airway by intubation usually in a situation of possible neck injury or severe facial trauma. Fourteen of the patients died as a result of their injuries, 13 of these in the first several hours after injury. The 20 surviving patients are studied in two groups: eleven patients whose cricothyroidotomy remained in place until decannulation (group I) and nine patients who underwent tracheostomy subsequent to cricothyroidotomy (group II). Clinical follow-up included physical examination in all survivors and endoscopic evaluation in twelve patients. Three minor complications were discovered in each of the two groups and two major complications were noted in group II. The major complications included a case of tracheal stomal stenosis requiring tracheal resection and a case of partially obstructing tracheal granulation tissue requiring endoscopic resection. This study supports the use of emergency cricothyroidotomy in situations in which intubation is not successful or thought to be safe. Data is also presented that suggests that tracheostomy subsequent to emergency cricothyroidotomy does not necessarily reduce airway-related morbidity in these patients.     

Intubation injuries of the trachea in children. Management and prevention.

The problem of intubation injuries of the trachea in children has been summarized. Preventive measures designed to protect the trachea from injury have been outlined. In spite of these measures, acute intubation injuries have occurred in 15 children. An aggressive approach combining bronchoscopic evaluation, intratracheal injection of steroids, tracheal stenting with an endotracheal tube and systemic steroids has been employed in the treatment of these injuries. We feel that this therapy has prevented the development of cicatrical stenosis in many of the cases and has allowed permanent decannulation of the trachea.     

Tracheal bleeding during awake fiberoptic intubation

Fiberoptic intubation can cause laryngeal injury during blind insertion of a tracheal tube. A patient with hypopharyngeal cancer was scheduled for laser surgery and we selected nasal fiberoptic intubation due to laryngeal deformity. Just after insertion of a tracheal tube, tracheal bleeding occurred and ventilation because difficult. Emergency tracheostomy was required to restore adequate oxygenation. A piece of mucosa and blood clot was found in the lumen of the tracheal tube and hematoma was observed on the surface of arytenoid cartilage. Careful selection and optimal manipulation of the tracheal tube is important and surgical airway access should be immediately available before fiberoptic procedure in a patient with friable and vascular-rich laryngeal lesion.     

Tracheostomy in burns patients revisited

Objective

The use of tracheostomy in burns patients has been controversial. A retrospective study was conducted to assess the use, complications and outcome of tracheostomy in ventilated adult burns patients.

Methods

Data was collected retrospectively regarding the extent of injury in each patient, the indication for tracheostomy, and outcome in terms of length of stay, days of mechanical ventilation, airway and pulmonary complications and survival. Patients were followed until discharge from the unit or death.

Results

Comparing patients who received tracheostomy to those who had translaryngeal intubation showed similar age distribution and no significant difference in the total burn surface area (TBSA). The use of tracheostomy was significantly higher in patients with TBSA >60%. Inhalation injury was significantly higher and mean probability of survival (ABSI), significantly lower in patients receiving tracheostomy. Duration of mechanical ventilation, length of stay in HDU/ITU and the incidence of pulmonary sepsis were significantly higher in tracheostomy group patients. However, there was no significant difference in mortality between the two groups.

Conclusion

Burn survivors with TBSA >60% are more likely to undergo repeated surgery and have burns to the head and neck region, therefore increasing the requirement for tracheostomy. Tracheostomy is a safe procedure with minimal perioperative complications. Late complications in this patient group may be related to duration of intubation and mechanical ventilation and the presence of an airway burn.Tracheostomy was associated with a higher prevalence of chest infection. We suspect that the cause of this is multifactorial, possibly due to a higher incidence of inhalation injury, greater burn size and prolonged mechanical ventilation in this group.     

烧伤合并中重度吸入性损伤的早期救治

目的：为提高中重度吸入性损伤治疗水平,探讨中重度吸入性损伤早期救治的方法。方法：对32例烧伤合并中重度吸入性损伤患者实施“四早”救治方案,即：早期气管切开;早期充分给氧;早期气道湿化、灌洗;早期纤维支气管镜检查及治疗。32例患者中,烧伤面积〈30％TBSA16例,30％～50％TBSA10例,〉50％TB—SA6例;Ⅲ度烧伤面积〈10％TBSA17例,10％～20％TBSA6例,〉20％TBSA9例。救治过程中观察患者气道黏膜损伤情况及愈合时间,监测气道灌洗前后、纤支镜治疗前后30min患者的心率、呼吸频率及动脉血气变化,纤支镜治疗前后痰标本作细菌培养。结果：32例中治愈28例,死亡4例,2例死于急性呼吸窘迫综合征,2例死于肺部严重感染,病死率12．5％;气道的愈合与黏膜损伤程度密切相关,与损伤部位关系不明显;气道灌洗前后和纤支镜治疗前后,患者的动脉血氧饱和度、动脉血氧分压升高,心率、呼吸频率减慢,动脉血pH值降低;纤支镜肺泡灌洗后气道内病原菌明显减少。中重度吸入性损伤患者应用“四早”救治方案后,显著地提高了救治的成功率。结论：对中重度吸入性损伤患者按“四早”方案进行救治是有效可行的。     

Management of acute and chronic disorders of the trachea and subglottis

During a 14 year period, 22 patients with stricture, acute laryngeal injury, and cancer were treated. Nine patients had postintubation tracheal stenosis and underwent tracheal resection with good to excellent results. Six patients had strictures after tracheostomy. In one patient, stenosis occurred after repair and repeated dilatation was necessary. He subsequently had to undergo repeat tracheostomy, but the tube was later removed and his symptoms disappeared. Our current preference for suture is either 3-0 polypropylene or polyglycolic acid. Acute separation of the trachea can occur with trauma to the neck, either by garrotting or direct blunt force. The diagnosis is suspected when endotracheal intubation is impossible and a step off below the larynx and crepitation exists. Emergency tracheostomy is necessary, however, and primary repair can be delayed for up to 24 hours if other conditions require attention. Tracheal resection for squamous cell carcinoma is possible, but only a small group of patients may be surgical candidates.     

A case of thyroid carcinoma required the incision of the thyroid cartilage for inserting the silicone T tube after extensive tracheal resection and reconstruction

A 57-year-old female with thyroid carcinoma, who had developed tracheal stenosis, underwent extensive tracheal resection and reconstruction. After the tracheal sleeve resection 5.2 cm in length, primary tracheal reconstruction was performed. Although complication did not occur at the anastomotic site, the patient had dyspnea due to cord dysfunction by bilateral recurrent nerve paralysis. After 20 days transnasal intubation we reoperated to perform a tracheostomy under neck incision. But the reconstructed trachea was too short to pull out from the mediastinum. In order to insert the silicone T tube, the incision of thyroid cartilage must be done and vocal cords were injured. The patient inserting the T tube through the laryngeal stoma had no dyspnea and no aspiration about two years after the operation in spite of palliative operation. It seemed likely that the trouble that tracheostomy could not be done would occur in some patients who had undergone extensive tracheal resection and reconstruction. But the insertion of silicone T tube through the laryngeal stoma provided a satisfactory result for airway problem.     

Airway injury after tracheotomy and endotracheal intubation

Iatrogenic airway injury after tracheotomy and endotracheal intubation continues to be a serious clinical problem. Endotracheal tubes cause pressure injury to the glottis and may result in severe commissural scarring that is difficult to treat. Tracheotomy tubes may result in severe stomal stenosis in the trachea or subglottic region, which is more amenable to surgical treatment. Both methods of airway intubation may result in pressure necrosis from the tube cuff that can be prevented by careful monitoring of inflation pressures. The technique of laryngotracheal resection and reconstruction has been well developed and may be applied successfully to most patients with subglottic and tracheal stenosis. The surgical treatment of glottic stenosis remains a challenge.