Adult long-segment tracheal stenosis attributable to complete tracheal rings masquerading as asthma

OBJECTIVE: a) To report on an adult patient with congenital long-segment tracheal stenosis from complete tracheal rings complicated by tracheomalacia; b) to highlight the fact that some patients with airway narrowing could be misdiagnosed as having bronchial asthma; and c) to discuss our management with a custom-made tracheostomy tube extending to the carina. DESIGN: Case report. SETTING: A university hospital's 14-bed medical/surgical intensive care unit. PATIENT: A 21-yr-old patient, with a history of what was labeled as asthma, was admitted to the intensive care unit with diabetic ketoacidosis, pneumonia, respiratory failure, and septic shock. INTERVENTIONS: Her therapy included assisted mechanical ventilation through an endotracheal tube. Initially, a size 6.0 endotracheal tube was used. Finally, a custom-made tracheostomy tube extending to the carina was inserted to manage her persistent infantile trachea. MEASUREMENT AND MAIN RESULTS: During 4 months in the intensive care unit, she suffered numerous airway problems from her narrow trachea that were eventually attributed to congenital long-segment tracheal stenosis from complete tracheal rings. Bacterial pneumonia, viral tracheobronchitis, and tracheomalacia complicated her course. Multiple attempts at extubation failed and, after translaryngeal endotracheal tubes and tracheostomy tubes of decreasing size, her airway was managed with a size 5.0 custom-made tracheostomy tube with the tip extending to her carina. She was totally dependent on this tube. CONCLUSION: Airway narrowing may masquerade as asthma. Congenital tracheal stenosis is rare and is associated with a high mortality rate. Complete tracheal rings presenting in adulthood are extremely rare, and we report the first case of long-segment pantracheal stenosis presenting in adulthood. Surgical treatment with tracheoplasty is difficult. A custom-made tracheostomy tube to stent the entire trachea is one management option. Tracheal stenosis should be excluded in patients with a chronic lack of response to therapy for asthma.     

小儿先天性心脏病伴气管狭窄的影像学诊断

目的探讨小儿先天性心脏病(先心病)伴气管狭窄的发病情况、病理分型、诊断技术与影像学表现。方法25例先天性心脏病伴气管狭窄的患儿进行影像学检查。本组所有患儿均摄片检查,21例患儿行胸部螺旋CT气管三维重建,5例患儿行气管造影,以明确气管狭窄的部位及程度。结果全部先天性心脏病患儿均伴有不同程度的气管狭窄,其中伴发右上气管性支气管5例。结论小儿先天性心脏病伴气管狭窄应引起临床重视,及早明确诊断,指导治疗及预后。目前胸部螺旋CT气管三维重建是明确气管狭窄的部位及程度的最佳无创性手段。     

Late complications of tracheostomy

Tracheostomy may be associated with numerous acute, perioperative complications, some of which continue to be relevant well after the placement of the tracheostomy. A number of clinically important unique late complications have been recognized as well, including the formation of granulation tissue, tracheal stenosis, tracheomalacia, tracheoinnominate-artery fistula, tracheoesophageal fistula, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and aspiration. The clinical relevance of these complications is considerable, as their manifestations range from minimally symptomatic to failure to wean from the ventilator (tracheal stenosis) to life-threatening hemorrhage (tracheoinnominate fistula). Treatment modalities vary depending upon the nature of the complication. For the most frequent complication, tracheal stenosis, a multidisciplinary approach utilizing bronchoscopy, laser, airway stents, and tracheal surgery is most effective.     

气道肿瘤造成气管狭窄经支气管镜介入治疗的临床疗效研究

目的:回顾性分析探讨肿瘤致气道狭窄的患者经气管介入治疗过程中该法的应用价值,为类似病情治疗提供理论参考。方法:收集76例我院2016年3月—2018年9月收治的气道肿瘤致气道狭窄并接受支气管镜介入治疗的病例资料,分析致使恶性气道狭窄的肿瘤类型成因,并分析评价其治疗前后气道内径、气促分级、治疗效果、术中并发症等临床资料,评估支气管介入治疗方式在该类病情治疗过程中的安全性及有效性。结果:均经病理证实的76例气道狭窄病例中,肺癌71例,肾癌肺转移2例,甲状腺癌气管侵犯3例。经支气管镜介入治疗气道狭窄,治疗前平均气道内径由0.57±0.18mm增至治疗后1.19±0.14mm,平均气道内径增加明显(P<0.05);平均气促分级由3.22±0.48降至治疗后1.52±0.79,气促分级降低明显(P<0.05);治疗总有效率达100%;患者术前平均KPS评分60.42±4.92,术后增至79.31±8.03,差异有统计意义(P<0.05);支气管镜介入治疗术中并发症多为出血、心律失常、一过性血氧低等,术中均得到有效控制。结论:肺癌中腺癌是导致气道狭窄的高发原因;支气管镜介导的手术治疗能直接可解除气道狭窄问题同时辅助其他放化疗,增强治疗效果。     

人工气管及气管支架材料的应用

背景:以往对中心气道狭窄常采取外科手术治疗,然而,有些患者无法接受,并且手术瘢痕可导致再狭窄.因此,支架置入成为治疗中心气道狭窄的重要手段之一.目的:总结人工气管及气管支架材料在临床中的应用进展.方法:应用计算机检索PubMed数据库及CNKI数据库,在标题和摘要中以"组织工程支架,人工气管,气管支架"或"tissue engineering scaffolds,artificial trachea,trachea scaffolds"为检索词进行检索.根据纳入标准选择22篇文献进行综述.结果与结论:近年来随着组织工程学的兴起和发展,在生物组织工程化气管的研究方面取得了一定的进展,目前已能够以软骨细胞或骨髓间质细胞为种子细胞构建出与自体气管相近的组织工程化气管,而且能够用软骨细胞及上皮细胞构建出带有气管黏膜上皮的复合组织工程化气管,但这些组织工程化气管移植到体内能否长期具有活性、发挥正常的生理功能等还需要进一步的实验验证.     

Evidence-based management of tracheostomies in hospitalized patients

There is little evidence-based literature on the management of tracheostomized patients. The existing data relate to the role of tracheostomy in specific disease states, the timing of tracheostomy, and comparison of open surgical to percutaneous tracheostomy. Tracheostomy protocols are under development. A recent series of 1,130 patients who underwent tracheostomy had a combined procedural, early, and late complication rate of approximately 4%, which is an improvement from the earlier complication rate. In the recent series, tracheal stenosis overtook hemorrhage as the leading complication, by 2 to 1. Tracheal stenosis accounted for nearly half of the complications. Half of the tracheal stenoses required surgical correction. All the patients who developed tracheal stenosis had endotracheal tubes for > 12 days before tracheostomy.     

Sténoses et complications trachéales postintubation

Granuloma, tracheomalacia, tracheo-œsophageal fistula and glottis œdema are well-known post-intubation complications. Post-intubation tracheal stenosis and tracheal ruptures are described in this article.Main points – Clinical signs of tracheal stenosis and tracheal ruptures are not always typical and diagnosis is often made at a late stage. Treatment of post-intubation tracheal stenosis can be difficult because of the poor health status at the time of the diagnosis. Obstructive fibrinous tracheal pseudomembrane is a recently described and potentially fatal complication of endotracheal intubation. Immediate mechanical ablation of the membrane is curative.Prospects – Management of post-intubation tracheal stenosis should be multidisciplinary. Initial bronchoscopic conservative treatment appears to be applicable to almost all patients and allows secondary surgery to be performed in good conditions. Conservative treatment of tracheal ruptures must be considered, when the rupture is well tolerated or in the opposite case when surgery is contraindicated because of poor general conditions.     

Beclomethasone diproprionate inhalation as a treatment for post-intubation tracheal stenosis

A 67-year-old man was intubated for one week and suffered from wheeze and dyspnoea three months after the extubation. Bronchoscopy revealed tracheal stenosis by a web, which subsequent biopsy showed to be granulation tissue. The stenosis was removed by laser therapy but the stenosis soon returned. As cardiac function was poor, beclomethasone diproprionate (BDP) inhalation therapy (1200 micrograms daily) was started and proved successful. Discontinuation of inhalation therapy resulted in restenosis. Steroid inhalation therapy may be able to control post-intubation tracheal stenosis caused by granulation tissue.     

气管切开气道湿化给药对气管粘膜纤毛损伤的研究

目的 探讨气管切开气道湿化给药对气管粘膜纤毛的影响。方法 使用不同浓度的硫酸庆大霉素-生理盐水溶液给气管造口后的家兔进行气管滴药，在用药的第7天和第14天取其气管粘膜进行扫描电镜观察，同时以生理盐水作对照。结果 用药第7天即有不同程度的气管粘膜纤毛损伤性改变，表现为纤毛脱落、缺失、断裂、方向混乱、倒伏、变短和参差不齐，其气管粘膜纤毛受损面积显著大于生理盐水组；用药第14天，气管粘膜纤毛损伤加剧，表现为部分区域纤毛大片脱落，其气管粘膜纤毛受损面积也显著大于生理盐水组。结论 使用传统的气道湿化液-庆大霉素加生理盐水，对气管粘膜纤毛会造成不同程度的损伤，破坏气管粘膜上皮表面粘液纤毛清除功能，从而造成痰液潴留，堵塞气道。     

Jet transcatheter artificial ventilation in the surgical treatment of tracheal cicatricial stenosis

The authors present the results of a study of the baseline condition, the parameters of external respiratory function, gas exchange, and hemodynamics in 42 patients with tracheal cicatricial stenosis (TCS). The impact of transcatheter normofrequency artificial ventilation (AL) on the respiratory and circulatory parameters was studied during surgical TCS removal. The baseline impairments were identified in the external respiratory system and in the hemodynamic provision of breathing processes, which corresponded to first-second grade respiratory failure disorders, despite preoperative tracheal bougienage elimination. Normofrequency and high-frequency AL is the method of choice in treating patients with concomitant respiratory diseases.     

Percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy — early results and long-term outcome of 326 critically ill patients

Objective: To analyze perioperative and postoperative complications and long-term sequelae following percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy (PDT). Design: A prospective clinical study of patients undergoing PDT. Setting: Seven intensive care units at a University hospital Patients: 326 intensive care patients (202 male, 124 female; age: 11–95 years) with indications for tracheostomy. Interventions: Using tracheoscopic guidance, 337 PDTs were performed according to Ciaglias' method. In 106 decannulated patients, tracheal narrowing was assessed by plain tracheal radiography. Results: Two procedure-related deaths were seen (0.6 %). Perioperative and postoperative complications occurred with 9.5 % of the PDTs. One of 106 patients, who were followed-up for at least 6 months, showed a clinically relevant tracheal stenosis. Subclinical tracheal stenosis of at least 10 % of the cross-sectioned area was recognized in 46 of 106 patients (43.4 %). In the univariate analysis, the degree of stenosis was influenced by the age of the patient (p = 0.044), the duration of intubation prior to PDT (p = 0.042) and by the duration of cannulation (p = 0.006). These parameters had no statistical significance in a multiple regression model. Conclusion: When performed by experienced physicians, percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy under fiberoptic guidance is a safe method. The risks of early complications and of clinically relevant tracheal stenoses are low. Subclinical tracheal stenoses are found in about 40 % of patients following PDT. Received: 25 July 1997 Accepted: 7 April 1998     

喉罩通气全身麻醉下经纤维支气管镜辅助置入Montgomery T型硅酮支架治疗气管狭窄的临床研究

目的探讨喉罩通气全身麻醉下经纤维支气管镜辅助置入Montgomery T型硅酮支架治疗气管狭窄的疗效及安全性。方法回顾性分析10例气管切开术后良性气道狭窄拔管困难经喉罩通气全麻下经纤支镜辅助置入Montgomery T型硅酮支架治疗的患者的临床资料。比较患者T管置入前后生活质量评分、动脉血氧分压(PaO_2)、动脉血二氧化碳分压(PaCO_2)、呼吸困难评分、嗓音综合质量评分的变化及患者并发症发生情况。结果患者术后1周生活质量评分、PaO_2较术前均明显提高(P0.05),嗓音质量综合评分及呼吸困难评分较术前明显下降(P0.05),无严重并发症发生。结论喉罩通气全麻下经纤支镜辅助置入Montgomery T型硅酮支架治疗气管狭窄安全有效,可作为气管插管后气道狭窄致拔管困难患者的一种选择。     

Enhanced chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stems cells on citric acid-modified chitosan hydrogel for tracheal cartilage regeneration applications

Congenital tracheal stenosis in infants and children is a worldwide clinical problem. Tissue engineering is a promising method for correcting long segmental tracheal defects. Nonetheless, the lack of desirable scaffolds always limits the development and applications of tissue engineering in clinical practice. In this study, a citric-acid-functionalized chitosan (CC) hydrogel was fabricated by a freeze–thaw method. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed that citric acid was successfully attached to the chitosan hydrogel. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images and compression tests showed that the CC hydrogel had an interconnected porous structure and better wet mechanical properties. Using morphological and proliferation analyses, cell biocompatibility of the CC hydrogel was shown by culturing human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) on it. Specific expression of cartilage-related markers was analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The expression of chondrocytic markers was strongly upregulated in the culture on the CC hydrogel. Hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed that the cells had the characteristic shape of chondrocytes and clustered into the CC hydrogel. Both Alcian blue staining and a sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) assay indicated that the CC hydrogel promoted the expression of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). In a nutshell, these results suggested that the CC hydrogel enhanced chondrogenic differentiation of hMSCs. Thus, the newly developed CC hydrogel may be a promising tissue-engineered scaffold for tracheal cartilage regeneration.

A novel citric acid functionalized chitosan hydrogel for tracheal cartilage regeneration applications.     

Rapid progression of tracheal stenosis associated with tracheopathia osteo-chondroplastica

Tracheopathia osteochondroplastica (TPO) is a rare, but increasingly recognised condition in which there is accumulation of calcium phosphate with benign submucous proliferation of cartilage and bone beneath the tracheal mucosa, often with squamous metaplasia of the mucosal columnar epithelium. This condition is usually asymptomatic, but may be slowly progressive, causing haemoptysis, dry cough and dyspnoea. We report a case of TPO in which there was rapid progression of tracheal stenosis such that the size of endotracheal tube that the upper airway would accept changed from 8.00 mm to 3.0 mm during a six-week period. This extreme reduction in airway calibre had not been detected on spirometry nine days prior to his final admission. This is the first report of such rapid progression of tracheal stenosis associated with TPO.     

电子支气管镜在婴幼儿呼吸道畸形诊断中的应用

目的探讨电子支气管镜对婴幼儿呼吸道畸形的诊断价值。方法回顾性分析78例存在呼吸道畸形婴幼儿的临床、电子支气管镜及影像学资料。结果电子支气管镜检查显示,78例婴幼儿呼吸道畸形包括单侧鼻后孔狭窄3例,先天性喉软骨软化22例,先天性喉囊肿2例,喉蹼1例,气管支气管软化27例,气管支气管狭窄15例,气管性支气管3例,气管憩室1例,桥支气管1例,气管食管瘘1例,复合畸形2例。x线胸片显示多为肺炎或支气管炎征象。胸部CT提示气管或支气管狭窄征象4例,支气管起源异常征象1例。CT气道三维重建诊断气管支气管狭窄8例,支气管起源异常2例,气管憩室1例。结论电子支气管镜对婴幼儿呼吸道畸形的诊断有重要价值。     

联合支架置入术治疗恶性气管、食管和上腔静脉复合狭窄

目的探讨联合支架置入术在恶性气管、食管、上腔静脉复合狭窄急诊治疗中的临床疗效。方法4例恶性肿瘤造成气管、食管、上腔静脉狭窄患者，男3例，女1例，年龄50～77岁，平均67岁。经螺旋CT气管、上腔静脉三维重建和食道造影检查，明确气管、食管、上腔静脉狭窄的部位和程度。根据患者原发疾病的特点和病情症状的缓急，在数字减影血管造影透视下先后置入气管和食管支架2例，先后置入气管和上腔静脉支架2例。结果所有支架均一次性置入成功，共置入气管支架4枚（其中气管倒Y型一体化支架1枚），食管支架2枚，上腔静脉支架3枚。患者置入气管和食管支架后，呼吸和吞咽困难症状明显改善；置入气管和上腔静脉支架后，呼吸困难和头面部、上肢肿胀症状明显改善。脉氧饱和度由高流量吸氧时的70％～80％提高至自然呼吸时的90％～95％。结论联合支架置入术治疗恶性气管、食管和上腔静脉复合狭窄操作简单、安全，能明显提高患者的生活质量，是行之有效的急救措施之一。     

Tracheal stenosis and obliteration above the tracheostoma after percutaneous dilational tracheostomy

Percutaneous dilational tracheotomy (PDT) as opposed to the conventional surgical tracheostomy is a procedure that allows airway control in critically ill patients without surgical exposure of the trachea. Based on the Seldinger technique, dilators are passed along a guiding wire through a small neck incision into the trachea under endoscopic surveillance. This separates the tracheal rings and results in a stoma. As opposed to the regular surgical tracheostoma, a PDT-stoma is not epithelialized. The procedure is cost effective and little time consuming. Considering the increasing number of performed PDTs in the last few years, we feel a need to be aware of possible long-term complications. Thus, in this report, we describe three cases of tracheal stenosis/obliteration after a PDT procedure. In all cases, tracheal narrowing occurred above the level of the stoma. This suggests a procedure-related mechanism, i.e., tracheal ring invagination and the consecutive development of granulation tissue, rather than a mechanism based on the duration of the cannula's placement, which would normally produce the stenosis below the stoma in the area of the cuff. Toward the end of the article, we provide evidence for this hypothesis and thus present a new subset of long-term complications after PDT.     

Sonographic imaging of the trachea.

We evaluated the feasibility of ultrasonography for imaging of the trachea and its effectiveness in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with tracheal stenosis due to various diseases. Twenty normal volunteers and six adult patients with tracheal stenosis were included in the study group. Subjects were examined with ultrasonography in a supine position with the neck hyperextended or in a sitting position. At the level of the thyroid isthmus, the anterior tracheal wall thicknesses imaged by ultrasonography were 1.54 +/- 0.22 mm (mean +/- SD) and 1.22 +/- 0.18 mm for normal male and female volunteers, respectively. Ultrasonography could reveal the intrinsic tracheal wall lesions and extrinsic lesions compressing the trachea in patients with tracheal stenosis. These ultrasonographic images correlated with CT images. In conclusion, ultrasonography may be useful in imaging of the trachea.     

硬质支气管镜联合电子支气管镜直视下置入气管支架治疗食管癌致中央气道狭窄的临床疗效

目的 探讨硬质支气管镜联合电子支气管镜直视下置入金属或硅酮气管支架治疗食管癌侵犯气管致中央气道狭窄的临床应用价值。方法 回顾性分析该院呼吸与危重症医学科2019年10月-2021年7月诊治的13例食管癌侵犯气管致中央气道中重度狭窄患者的临床资料,所有患者均在全身麻醉肌松下插入硬质支气管镜,在电子支气管镜实时引导下行金属支架或硅酮支架置入治疗,观察其临床效果。结果 13例患者成功置入金属支架7枚,硅酮支架6枚（1枚直筒型,5枚Y型）。支架置入后,患者卡氏功能状态（KPS）评分、经皮动脉血氧分压（PaO2）和经皮动脉血氧饱和度（SpO2）明显高于支架置入前（P <0.05）;气管狭窄程度较支架置入前明显改善,气促分级、呼吸困难博格评分和二氧化碳分压（PCO2）明显低于支架置入前（P <0.05）;金属支架组和硅酮支架组术后近期并发症、远期并发症、3个月生存率和6个月生存率比较,差异均无统计学意义（P> 0.05）。结论 在硬质支气管镜联合电子支气管镜直视下置入气管支架治疗食管癌所致的中央气道狭窄,安全可行,能迅速解除气管狭窄,近期效果显著,为患者后续治疗提供了保障。     

纤维支气管镜直视下有创机械通气中置入金属支架治疗恶性肿瘤致中心气道狭窄的临床应用

目的探讨在机械通气情况下置入气道支架解除恶性肿瘤引起中心气道狭窄的可行性和安全性。方法在机械通气下,将纤维支气管镜和气管插管并行进入气道,在纤维支气管镜直视下经气管插管置入金属气道支架。结果 11例恶性肿瘤引起的中心气道狭窄在机械通气下置入金属气道支架11枚,狭窄解除、呼吸机撤离、操作顺利,缺氧症状缓解。改良英国医学研究学会呼吸困难指数(mMRC)评分、气道压和气道狭窄均改善明显,与支架置入前比较,差异均有统计学意义(P 0.05);动脉血气分析中,动脉血氧分压(PaO_2)和动脉血氧饱和度(SaO_2)升高,动脉血二氧化碳分压(PaCO_2)降低,与支架置入前比较,差异均有统计学意义(P 0.05)。结论在纤维支气管镜直视下,将支架推送器经气管插管置入气道支架治疗中心气道狭窄是可行的、安全的,且近期疗效显著。