A systematic review of pharmacogenetic testing in primary care: Attitudes of patients,general practitioners,and pharmacists

BackgroundPharmacogenetic testing enhances patient safety by improving medical treatment and reducing side effects. It has shown potential in both primary and secondary care. However, implementation in healthcare, particularly in primary care, is slow.ObjectiveThe objective was to review articles published on the attitudes towards, and knowledge on pharmacogenetic testing in primary care, among general practitioners, pharmacists, and patients.MethodsThe review was performed according to the PRISMA checklist. A systemized literature search was followed by a 2-step screening process. Apart from the content of articles being within the scope of the review, inclusion criteria included: articles in English; primary research articles; qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Content analysis was conducted as a qualitative meta-synthesis. The methodological rigor of included articles was assessed.ResultsFifteen studies were included. The analysis resulted in the following main themes: i) benefits of pharmacogenetic testing, ii) barriers to pharmacogenetic testing, iii) pharmacists' role in pharmacogenetic counselling, and iv) pharmacists’ knowledge on pharmacogenetics. Methodological rigor was generally medium/high.ConclusionsMore studies are needed in this area, and there is a need for more education on pharmacogenetic testing for healthcare professionals. Issues like patient autonomy, economy, and access to tests also need to be addressed.     

Community pharmacy and primary health care - Types of integration and their applicability: A narrative review

BackgroundThere is an urgent need for health care systems to be more efficient and efficacious. An approach to integrate public and private provider organizations such as community pharmacies and public primary health care (PHC) merits consideration. The objective of this review was to identify the types of integration in health care settings and discuss their applicability to the potential integration of community pharmacy and PHC.MethodsA narrative review using Medline, Scopus and SciELO databases was performed in which terms related to health were combined with terms related to integration.Levels and Types of integration: 14 types of integration were identified (two in breadth, seven as enablers and five in system levels). A model was created which classifies and assigns the types of integration to the different levels of the health system and to the breadth, intensity, and enablers of the integration process. Due to the nature of community pharmacy and PHC system, a horizontal integration at the micro level, supported by meso and macro levels policy, is suggested. The different elements of intensity and enablers can significantly influence the process.ConclusionThe application of principles, concepts and types of integration suggest that it might be feasible and practical to integrate community pharmacies and PHC. However, the conflictive historical context would need to be overcome with appropriate policy and incentives.     

Pharmacist services provided in general practice clinics: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundIntegration of pharmacists into primary care general practice clinics has the potential to improve interdisciplinary teamwork and patient care; however this practice is not widespread.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to review the effectiveness of clinical pharmacist services delivered in primary care general practice clinics.MethodsA systematic review of English language randomized controlled trials cited in the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, EMBASE and International Pharmaceutical Abstracts was conducted. Studies were included if pharmacists had a regular and ongoing relationship with the clinic; delivered an intervention aimed at optimizing prescribing for, and/or medication use by, clinic patients; and were physically present within the clinic for all or part of the intervention, or for communication with staff. The search generated 1484 articles. After removal of duplicates and screening of titles and abstracts against inclusion criteria, 131 articles remained. A total of 38 studies were included in the review and assessed for quality. Seventeen studies had common endpoints (blood pressure, glycosylated hemoglobin, cholesterol and/or Framingham risk score) and were included in meta-analyses.ResultsTwenty-nine of the 38 studies recruited patients with specific medical conditions, most commonly cardiovascular disease (15 studies) and/or diabetes (9 studies). The remaining 9 studies recruited patients at general risk of medication misadventure. Pharmacist interventions usually involved medication review (86.8%), with or without other activities delivered collaboratively with the general practitioner (family physician). Positive effects on primary outcomes related to medication use or clinical outcomes were reported in 19 studies, mixed effects in six studies, and no effect in 13 studies. The results of meta-analyses favored the pharmacist intervention, with significant improvements in blood pressure, glycosylated hemoglobin, cholesterol and Framingham risk score in intervention patients compared to control patients.ConclusionsPharmacists co-located in general practice clinics delivered a range of interventions, with favorable results in various areas of chronic disease management and quality use of medicines.     

Involvement and practice of community pharmacists in maternal and child health services: A systematic review

IntroductionCommunity pharmacists are pivotal in the provision of Maternal and Child Health (MCH) services, yet level of involvement, practice and barriers and facilitators in providing these services is largely unknown.ObjectiveThe objective of this review is to summarize available evidence on the involvement and practice of community pharmacists in MCH services.MethodsSeven electronic databases (PubMed, CINAHL, ProQuest Health, Cochrane library, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science) were searched for articles published in English since inception of the database to November 30, 2019. Papers were included if they assessed involvement and practices of community pharmacists in maternal and child health services. Full articles identified and included for the final analysis were assessed for quality using the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT) (2018) by all authors and data were extracted by one author and cross-checked by all authors.ResultA total of 2830 articles were identified. Following the assessment against the inclusion criteria, 14 full text articles were included for the final analysis. In eight studies, community pharmacists were reported to have involvement in maternal health services, in terms of providing breastfeeding guidance, counselling about the benefit of vitamins during pregnancy, provision of emergency contraception advice, and responding to illness symptoms such as back pain. In three studies, community pharmacists were providing advice in managing acute diarrhea in children. Medication use services and counselling about medication for children were also reported in three studies. Perceived consumer attitudes, problem with insurance coverage, lack of time among pharmacists and lack of incentives for the services provided were reported by pharmacists as the main barriers to service provision.ConclusionCommunity pharmacists were involved in various MCH services in community pharmacy settings. However, the extent of practices was not as per the joint International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP)/World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on good pharmacy practice in some services such as management of diarrhea.     

A systematic review of the impact of alcohol use disorders on HIV treatment outcomes, adherence to antiretroviral therapy and health care utilization

Background

Alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are highly prevalent and associated with non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy, decreased health care utilization and poor HIV treatment outcomes among HIV-infected individuals.

Objectives

To systematically review studies assessing the impact of AUDs on: (1) medication adherence, (2) health care utilization and (3) biological treatment outcomes among people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA).

Data sources

Six electronic databases and Google Scholar were queried for articles published in English, French and Spanish from 1988 to 2010. Selected references from primary articles were also examined.

Review methods

Selection criteria included: (1) AUD and adherence (N = 20); (2) AUD and health services utilization (N = 11); or (3) AUD with CD4 count or HIV-1 RNA treatment outcomes (N = 10). Reviews, animal studies, non-peer reviewed documents and ongoing studies with unpublished data were excluded. Studies that did not differentiate HIV+ from HIV− status and those that did not distinguish between drug and alcohol use were also excluded. Data were extracted, appraised and summarized.

Data synthesis and conclusions

Our findings consistently support an association between AUDs and decreased adherence to antiretroviral therapy and poor HIV treatment outcomes among HIV-infected individuals. Their effect on health care utilization, however, was variable.     

PCImpact: A modeling tool for forecasting impact of primary care pharmacist services

BackgroundThe role of the pharmacist in primary care (PC) has expanded to focus on medication optimization and management for chronic conditions. However, identifying the optimal pharmacist practice model to maximize pharmacist workload capacity, patient care quality, and PC provider satisfaction remains a challenge. PC clinical and administrative leaders could benefit from pharmacist impact forecasts to justify initiating new or optimizing/expanding current pharmacist services.Objectives(1) To describe the development of a PC pharmacist services modeling tool, PCImpact (2) To discuss the use of PCImpact by PC leaders to initiate, optimize, or expand integrated pharmacist services.MethodsPCImpact was developed and internally tested with 6 clinical/administrative leaders within a federally qualified health center and health system-affiliated primary care organization by: (1) identifying pharmacist practice models, (2) obtaining data input values for PCImpact, and (3) calculating PCImpact output values.Two types of pharmacist practice models are defined: population health (PH) and direct patient care (DPC). In the PH models, a centralized pharmacist performs one-time, comprehensive or targeted medication reviews with no direct patient interaction. PC providers review and implement pharmacist recommendations. In DPC models, an embedded pharmacist in a PC practice performs patient visits with or without collaborative practice agreements with PC providers.Default values for all PCImpact data inputs were obtained/tested through literature reviews and discussions with pharmacy and physician leaders, including pharmacist and PC provider time required, and implementation percentage of pharmacist recommendations. PCImpact calculates: (1) pharmacist workload capacity, (2) PC provider time impact, and (3) patient care impact.ConclusionsPCImpact presents a novel method to objectively forecast the impact of PH and DPC pharmacist services in 2 PC settings. PCImpact outputs showed that a DPC pharmacist practice model can save PC provider time and impact a greater number of patients compared to a PH pharmacist practice model.     

The role of the clinical pharmacist in mental health hospital-in-the-home: A scoping review

BackgroundThe concept of integrating a clinical pharmacist (CP) within a Hospital-in-the-Home (HiTH) program is relatively new. Little is known about the role of a pharmacist in HiTH programs focused on mental health (MH).ObjectivesTo describe the role of a CP within an MH-HiTH program, focusing on the specific tasks performed by a pharmacist in this position, their benefits and limitations.MethodsMEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, PsycINFO, Web of Science and the grey literature were searched without any date limits for references in English that included 2 or more of the following key terms (or their synonyms): “HiTH”, “clinical pharmacist” and “mental health”. Two reviewers independently screened and analysed the data.ResultsOf 60,482 screened references, 6 included all 3 key terms: 2 were HiTH guideline documents, 2 were conference abstracts and 2 were journal articles. These papers discussed MH-HiTH programs or similar home-care services where a CP was incorporated in the treating team to address medication management and adherence during a home visit. There is evidence that MH-HiTH CPs identify and resolve medication-related problems (MRPs), as well as improve medication adherence, patient care, hospital admission rates and emergency department presentations. An additional 54 references including 2 key terms provided corroborating evidence of an MH-HiTH CP role focused on improving patient care via 4 key groups of tasks: clinical pharmacy, mental healthcare, home medicines review and facilitation of care transition through medication reconciliation and follow-up.ConclusionsAlthough there is currently a paucity of literature describing the incorporation of a CP in an MH-HiTH program, preliminary evidence shows it can improve medication management. This has potential to improve patient outcomes as has been seen in similar home-based settings, but limitations such as time constraints are notable barriers. More robust studies are needed to evaluate these outcomes.     

The role of clinical pharmacists in general practice in England: Impact,perspectives, barriers and facilitators

BackgroundBy 2020/1 NHS England plans to invest over 100 m to ensure that there is one clinical pharmacist post in primary care for every 30,000 patients. A recent realist review identified key questions in the literature related to the implementation of a clinical pharmacist (CP) in a general practice role. These relate to the impact of the role, perspectives on the role (patients, GPs and pharmacists), and barriers and facilitators to the implementation process. The data collected in the national evaluation of the pilot scheme provides data to answer the realist questions identified.ObjectivesThis paper examines the experience of implementing the clinical pharmacist in general practice role, in relation to the areas identified above.MethodsThe research took a mixed methods approach to understanding the scheme implementation and this research draws on both survey and qualitative interview data from a wide range of stakeholders.ResultsPharmacists in the pilot phase are motivated to develop clinical skills and make a positive impact on patients. Data suggests that clinical pharmacists have a positive impact, in particular on health outcomes related to polypharmacy and long-term conditions. GPs have a broadly positive response to the CPs, in particular when they save time and money for the practice. However, GPs have to invest time in mentoring and building relationships to realise the benefits of the role. Patients appreciate the CP role for increasing access to a practitioner and providing expertise in medications. There are some barriers to successful implementation of the role, including policy and funding, lack of clarity around the role and lack of quantitative and economic validation of the role. Facilitators of success include supportive working relationships, integration and mentoring.ConclusionThe pilot implementation of this new role was successful but there are lessons which can be learned for the success of future iterations and more work is required to economically validate the role which is likely to in turn generate positive relationships with GPs.     

中国临床药师工作模式的系统性评价

目的:评价中国临床药师干预效果的研究,考察临床药师的干预模式,评价临床药师的干预结果。方法:检索PUBMED、COCHRANE、CNKI、万方、维普数据库,纳入中国临床药师干预的随机对照试验,两名评价员按照固定的纳入排除标准,独立对文献资料进行提取。结果:共纳入临床药师参与的随机对照试验25篇,干预领域从高到低依次为内分泌科、呼吸科、心血管科、抗感染科、肿瘤科。干预方式为医院药学信息服务、药物认知或生活方式干预、患者教育与用药咨询、出院用药与随访、建立医疗团队等项目。药师干预的一级、二级、三级、四级有效率分别为50%、75%、76%、86%。结论:临床药师的干预可以提高依从性、认知度,降低患者不良反应发生率的药费。临床药师工作模式已经初见成效,但我国药学服务的模式与评价模式仍有待改善。     

对1例原发性肾病综合征患者的药学监护

1例34a男性患者,因原发性肾病综合征、轻度系膜增生性肾小球肾炎采用足量激素治疗8周后临床未完全缓解,为行进一步诊治入院。入院查肝功能异常,肾穿刺病理切片重新阅片后诊断更正为膜性肾病（Ⅱ期）,给予糖皮质激素联合环孢素A治疗,同时给予保肝、抗凝、调脂、降低尿蛋白等对症治疗。针对患者肝功能异常、需长期应用糖皮质激素和环孢素A等特点,药学监护集中于监测他汀类调脂药的肝损害、应用环孢素A时调脂药的选择、糖皮质激素性骨质疏松的预防,同时通过用药教育提高病人用药依从性,减少潜在的用药风险。患者出院后继续规律应用糖皮质激素和环孢素A并缓慢减量,随访8个月,患者尿蛋白完全缓解（24h尿蛋白定量〈300mg）,肝功能、血脂均正常。     

Deprescribing interventions in primary health care mapped to the Behaviour Change Wheel: A scoping review

BackgroundPolypharmacy and inappropriate medication use are an increasing concern. Deprescribing may improve medication use through planned and supervised dose reduction or stopping of medications. As most medication management occurs in primary health care, which is generally described as the first point of access for day-to-day care, deprescribing in primary health care is the focus on this review.ObjectiveThis scoping review aimed to identify and characterize strategies for deprescribing in primary health care and map the strategies to the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW).MethodsA scoping review was conducted that involved searches of six databases (2002–2018) and reference lists of relevant systematic reviews and included studies. Studies that described and evaluated deprescribing strategies in primary health care were eligible. Two independent reviewers screened articles and completed data charting with charting verified by a third. Deprescribing strategies were mapped to the intervention functions of the BCW and linked to specific Behaviour Change Techniques (BCT).ResultsSearches yielded 6871 citations of which 43 were included. Nineteen studies were randomized, 24 were non-randomized. Studies evaluated deprescribing in terms of medication changes, feasibility, and prescriber/patient perspectives. Deprescribing strategies involved various professionals (physicians, pharmacists, nurses), as well as patients and were generally multifaceted. A wide range of intervention functions were identified, with 41 BCTs mapped to Environmental restructuring, 38 BCTs mapped to Enablement, and 34 BCTs mapped to Persuasion.ConclusionsDeprescribing strategies in primary health care have used a variety of BCTs to address individual professionals (e.g. education) as well as strategies that addressed the practice setting, including support from additional team members (e.g. pharmacists, nurses and patients). Further research is warranted to determine comparative effectiveness of different BCTs, which can help facilitate implementation of deprescribing strategies, thereby reducing polypharmacy, in primary health care.     

The effect of early in-hospital medication review on health outcomes: a systematic review

AimsAdverse drug events are an important cause of emergency department visits, unplanned admissions and prolonged hospital stays. Our objective was to synthesize the evidence on the effect of early in-hospital pharmacist-led medication review on patient-oriented outcomes based on observed data.MethodsWe systematically searched eight bibliographic reference databases, electronic grey literature, medical journals, conference proceedings, trial registries and bibliographies of relevant papers. We included studies that employed random or quasi-random methods to allocate subjects to pharmacist-led medication review or control. Medication review had to include, at a minimum, obtaining a best possible medication history and reviewing medications for appropriateness and adverse drug events. The intervention had to be initiated within 24 h of emergency department presentation or 72 h of admission. We extracted data in duplicate and pooled outcomes from clinically homogeneous studies of the same design using random effects meta-analysis.ResultsWe retrieved 4549 titles of which seven were included, reporting the outcomes of 3292 patients. We pooled data from studies of the same design, and found no significant differences in length of hospital admission (weighted mean difference [WMD] –0.04 days, 95% confidence interval [CI] –1.63, 1.55), mortality (odds ratio [OR] 1.09, 95% CI 0.69, 1.72), readmissions (OR 1.15, 95% CI 0.81, 1.63) or emergency department revisits at 3 months (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.27, 1.32). Two large studies reporting reductions in readmissions could not be included in our pooled estimates due to differences in study design.ConclusionsWide confidence intervals suggest that additional research is likely to influence the effect size estimates and clarify the effect of medication review on patient-oriented outcomes. This systematic review failed to identify an effect of pharmacist-led medication review on health outcomes.     

基层医院开展临床药学服务的实践与体会

目的探讨基层医院开展临床药学服务的方法和体会。方法通过用药咨询、处方点评、临床合理用药指导和药物不良反应监测等模式有力推进该院临床药学工作的深入开展。结果通过近年来的实践与摸索,该院的临床药学服务模式已具雏形。结论临床药学服务的开展切实提高了医院的合理用药水平。     

Clinical pharmacists: Bridging the gap between patients and physicians

The clinical pharmacy has spread out drastically in terms of its professional services throughout the past few years. The clinical pharmacist become a crucial element of healthcare team and promotes patient care by interacting with physician and patient. The aim of this paper is to highlight the role of clinical pharmacists in various departments. It concludes that the features of interactions occurring between clinical pharmacists and physicians influence the teamwork between pharmacists and physicians and provide better patient care.     

Pharmacists in primary care Determinants of the care-providing function of Dutch community pharmacists in primary care

OBJECTIVE: To identify determinants of the care-providing function of the community pharmacists (CPs) to explain variations in professional practice. SETTING: The Netherlands 2001. PARTICIPANTS: 328 CPs. METHOD: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was performed. Questionnaires were used to collect data about the care provided in pharmacies. As dependent variables three partial constructs: 'individual patient care', 'registration of the care', and 'cooperation with GPs', and one total construct: 'care function' were formed. Independent variables were: gender, work experience, attitude to the care-providing function, tenure, relationship with GPs, pharmacist trainer, frequency of postgraduate training, workload, part-time working, frequency of contact with pharmaceutical representatives, presence of technicians with a specialised caring duty, size of the pharmacy, urbanisation, competition, franchise pharmacy, presence of sufficient personnel. A multiple-regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: Respondents 71%; of the respondents 29% never enquired about the patient's experience when supplying a medication for the second time. The supply of self-care remedies was never registered by 11% of respondents. Ninety percent of pharmacists participate more than four times per year in Pharmacotherapy Audit Meetings. The attitude of the pharmacist, relationship with the GP, presence of specialised technicians, frequency of postgraduate training and the type of tenure are significantly positively correlated with a care-providing function. Being a pharmacist trainer is significantly positively related with 'individual patient care', the frequency of postgraduate training is significantly positively correlated with 'registration of the care' and the number of years in service is significantly negatively correlated with 'cooperation with GPs'. There is a negative correlation between the cooperation with GPs and the number of years a pharmacist has been in service. CONCLUSION: Based on this survey, the development of programmes focused on optimal attitude, and cooperation between pharmacists and GPs is recommended.     

临床药师优化药学服务流程的临床实践

目的：以优化药学服务流程为切入点,探讨临床药师开展药学服务的内容与方法。方法：阐述临床药师优化药学服务流程的目的、形式、内容、重点、效果,并进行典型案例分析。结果：通过实施优化药学服务流程,使病人、医护人员及临床药师均受益。结论：优化药学服务流程可成为临床药师融入临床开展药学服务的切入点,体现临床药师的价值。     

临床药师职业倦怠与积极心理健康状况调查研究

目的调查临床药师职业倦怠与积极心理健康状况,了解两者的关系,为医院管理提供依据。方法采用职业倦怠感量表（MBI）和幸福进取者问卷（HEIQ）对86名临床药师进行调查,了解其职业倦怠和积极心理健康状况。结果临床药师情绪衰竭感得分为（26.39±11.16）分,工作冷漠感得分为（8.61±2.58）分,均为中度倦怠,个人成就感得分为（14.47±3.59）分,为低个人成就感;临床药师的HEIQ总分为（85.46±8.43）分,得分率为56.7%,为中等水平。相关分析显示,MBI与HEIQ存在高度相关性（P〈0.05）。结论临床药师存在不同程度的职业倦怠感,积极心理健康水平不高,加强积极心理健康教育能够降低其职业倦怠,提高临床药学服务质量。     

Defining the value of faculty primary care clinical pharmacists

BackgroundDemonstrating the value of comprehensive medication management (CMM) within clinical faculty sites is a challenge when balancing patient volume with academic responsibilities. Utilizing an evidence-based implementation system for CMM, faculty primary care clinical pharmacists (PCCPs) standardized CMM within their practice sites.ObjectiveThe primary objective of this project was to define the value of faculty PCCPs.MethodsAn Ambulatory Care Summit was hosted to identify opportunities for consistency of CMM. Following the summit, the CMM implementation team (faculty PCCPs and project manager) utilized CMM implementation tools from the Comprehensive Medication Management in Primary Care Research Team. Additionally, a strategic plan was developed to enhance practice management, improve fidelity, and determine key performance indicators (KPIs). Five faculty-mentored student projects assessed value of faculty-delivered CMM in primary care clinics. Data included medication adherence metrics, clinic quality metrics, diabetes metrics, acute healthcare utilization rates, and a physician satisfaction survey.ResultsAmong those receiving CMM, adherence improved 14% (P = 0.022), 119 clinic quality metrics were achieved, HbA1c ≤ 9% improved 45% (p < 0.001), average HbA1c decreased by 1.73% (p < 0.001), and medication preventable acute care utilization within the referral reason decreased. Over 90% of physicians surveyed agreed the faculty PCCP is a valuable team member, improved patients’ health, and improved effectiveness/efficiency. Four student posters were presented at national conferences and 18 student pharmacists were engaged in various aspects of the project.ConclusionIncorporating CMM at faculty primary care clinics provides value. To demonstrate this value, faculty must align KPIs with institution-specific payer contracts.