Nanoemulsion system for the transdermal delivery of a poorly soluble cardiovascular drug

The purpose of the present study is to develop and evaluate the potential of nanoemulsions for increasing the solubility and the in vitro transdermal delivery of carvedilol. Pseudoternary phase diagrams were developed and various nanoemulsion formulations were prepared using oleic acid and isopropyl myristate (IPM) (1:1) as the oil, Tween 80 as surfactant, and Transcutol P as cosurfactant. The prepared nanoemulsions were subjected to physical stability tests. Transdermal permeation of carvedilol through rat abdominal skin was determined with Keshary-Chien diffusion cell. Significant increase (P < 0.05) in the steady state flux (Jss) and permeability coefficient (Kp) was observed in nanoemulsion formulations as compared to control or drug-loaded neat components. The highest value of these permeability parameters was obtained in optimized formulation B3, which consisted of 0.5% w/w of carvedilol, 6% w/w of oleic acid:IPM (1:1), 22.5% w/w of Tween 80, 22.5% w/w of Transcutol P, and 49% w/w of distilled water and in which the solubility of the drug was 4500-fold higher. The optimized nanoemulsion was characterized for pH, conductivity, viscosity, droplet size, droplet shape, and refractive index. Thermodynamic studies showed that there had been a significant decrease of 88% in activation energy (Eact) when the drug was incorporated in nanoemulsion. The irritation studies suggested that the optimized nanoemulsion was a non-irritant transdermal delivery system.     

单纯形网格法优化黄芪甲苷纳米乳处方及其皮肤滞留量考察

目的: 优化黄芪甲苷纳米乳处方并考察其皮肤滞留量。方法: 绘制伪三元相图,确定各相比例。以载药量、平均粒径及多分散指数为评价指标,采用单纯形网格法优化纳米乳处方。采用Franz扩散池法考察皮肤滞留量。结果: 优化的处方为丙二醇单月桂酸甘油酯含量5%,混合乳化剂(聚氧乙烯氢化蓖麻油∶1,2-丙二醇,Km=2∶1)含量40%,水含量55%,制备的纳米乳平均粒径为(20.73±0.25) nm,多分散指数为0.183±0.01,载药量为(1.60±0.05) mg·mL^-1,响应方程预测的各指标值与实测值偏差均小于5%。与黄芪甲苷混悬液比较,纳米乳显著提高黄芪甲苷的皮肤滞留量(P<0.01)。结论: 建立的方法预测性好,可用于黄芪甲苷纳米乳处方优化,纳米乳可显著提高黄芪甲苷的皮肤滞留量。     

Preparation and evaluation of microemulsion of vinpocetine for transdermal delivery

Poorly soluble vinpocetine was selected as the model drug to prepare a microemulsion in order to increase solubility and in vitro transdermal delivery of the drug. Oleic acid was chosen as the oil phase due to its excellent solubilizing capacity. PEG-40 hydrogenated castor oil (Cremophor RH40) was employed as a surfactant (S) and purified diethylene glycol monoethyl ether (Transcutol P) was used as a cosurfactant (CoS). The effects of diverse types of oil, different weight ratios of surfactant to cosurfactant (S/CoS) on the solubility and permeation rate of vinpocetine were investigated. The optimized microemulsion consisted of 1% vinpocetine, 4% oleic acid, 20% Cremophor RH40, 10% Transcutol P and 65% distilled water (w/w), in which drug solubility was about 2,100 fold compared to that in water and the apparent permeation rate across the excised rat skin was 15.0 +/- 2.5 microg/cm2/h. Finally the physicochemical properties of the optimized microemulsion including pH, viscosity, refractive index, conductivity and particle size distribution were examined, which showed stable behavior after more than 12 months at ambient temperature. The irritation study showed that optimized microemulsion was a safe transdermal delivery system.     

Olive oil and clove oil-based nanoemulsion for topical delivery of terbinafine hydrochloride: in vitro and ex vivo evaluation

In this article, formulation studies for terbinafine hydrochloride nanoemulsions, prepared by high-energy ultrasonication technique, are described. Pseudo-ternary phase diagram was constructed in order to find out the optimal ratios of oil and surfactant/co-solvent mixture for nanoemulsion production. Clove and olive oils were selected as oil phase. Based on the droplet size evaluation, maximum nanoemulsion region were determined for formulation development. Further characterization included polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, morphology, pH, viscosity, refractive index, ex vivo skin permeation, skin irritation, and histopathological examination. Droplet sizes of optimized formulations were in colloidal range. PDI values below 0.35 indicated considerably homogeneous nanoemulsions. Zeta potential values were from 13.2 to 18.1 mV indicating good stability, which was also confirmed by dispersion stability studies. Ex vivo permeation studies revealed almost total skin permeation of terbinafine hydrochloride from the nanoemulsions (96–98%) in 6 hours whereas commercial product reached only 57% permeation at the same time. Maximum drug amounts were seen in epidermis and dermis layers. Skin irritation and histopathological examination demonstrated dermatologically safe formulations. In conclusion, olive oil and clove oil-based nanoemulsion systems have potential to serve as promising carriers for topical terbinafine hydrochloride delivery.     

薄荷素油纳米乳的制备

目的：研究探索制备薄荷素油纳米乳的处方。方法：采用转向法制备薄荷素油纳米乳,通过滴定法绘制伪三元相图,以纳米乳区域的面积、稳定性为考察指标,筛选薄荷素油纳米乳最佳处方。通过稀释法鉴定薄荷素油纳米乳类型、透射电子显微镜观察其外观形态、激光粒度测定仪测定其粒径分布、电位。结果：薄荷素油纳米乳优选处方结果为：表面活性剂为蓖麻油聚氧乙烯醚（EL-40）、助表面活性剂为聚乙二醇400（PEG-400）,K_m为3：1,薄荷素油、复表面活性剂、蒸馏水含量为56.62%：23.67%：19.72%;所制得薄荷素油纳米乳为澄清透明,平均粒径为19.55 nm,PDI为0.183,呈正态分布,Zeta电位为3.10 mV。结论：薄荷素油纳米乳制备工艺简单,采用优选处方制备的薄荷素油纳米乳粒径小、大小均匀。     

纳米乳经皮渗透的可视化定量分析研究

目的:考察并分析纳米乳的经皮渗透能力。方法:制备含荧光示踪剂OB的纳米乳并对其粒径大小、分布和形态进行分析;另制备含OB的酊剂、肉豆蔻酸异丙酯(IPM)以及辛酸癸酸聚乙二醇甘油酯/聚甘油脂肪酸酯(Labrasol/Plurol Oleique)溶液作为对照;激光共聚焦显微镜可视化定量分析各种制剂在活体大鼠皮肤的透皮路径及透皮性差异。结果:OB纳米乳平均粒径为65.4nm,粒径分布介于39.9~102.7nm,呈大小不均的球形分布体系;透皮2h后,纳米乳在真皮浅层中的荧光强度分别是酊剂、IPM和Labrasol/Plurol Oleique溶液的1.94、2.68、4.93倍。结论:纳米乳具有良好的透皮性,有望成为新型透皮给药制剂。     

均匀设计优选藏药如达胃宁的组方

目的:优选藏药如达胃宁组方。方法:采用均匀设计试验法,以胃溃疡小鼠为筛选模型,观察如达胃宁不同组方比例对小鼠溃疡指数和溃疡抑制率的影响。结果:如达胃宁组方优化比例为沙棘1.5份、川木香9份,能显著降低溃疡指数(P<0.01),具有显著抑制溃疡形成的作用。结论:筛选所得的如达胃宁组方比例组合物有明确的抗溃疡作用,体现了组方药物的协同作用。     

Fabrication,in-vitro characterization,and enhanced in-vivo evaluation of carbopol-based nanoemulsion gel of apigenin for UV-induced skin carcinoma

The aim of this study was to develop a potential novel formulation of carbopol-based nanoemulsion gel containing apigenin using tamarind gum emulsifier which was having the smallest droplet size, the highest drug content, and a good physical stability for Skin delivery. Apigenin loaded nanoemulsion was prepared by high speed homogenization method and they were characterized with respect to morphology, zeta potential, differential scanning calorimeter study, and penetration studies. In-vitro release studies and skin permeation of apigenin loaded nanoemulsion by goat abdominal skin was determined using Franz diffusion cell and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). The cytotoxicity of the reported formulation was evaluated in HaCaT Cells (A) and A431 cells (B) by MTT assay. The nanoemulsion formulation showed droplet size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of 183.31?nm, 0.532, and 31.9?mV, respectively. The nanoemulsions were characterized by TEM demonstrated spherical droplets and FTIR to ensure the compatibility among its ingredients. CLSM showed uniform fluorescence intensity across the entire depth of skin in nanocarriers treatment, indicating high penetrability of nanoemulsion gel through goatskin. The nanoemulsion gel showed toxicity on melanoma (A341) in a concentration range of 0.4–2.0?mg/ml, but less toxicity toward HaCaT cells. The carbopol-based nanoemulsion gel formulation of apigenin possesses better penetrability across goatskin as compared to marketed formulation. Hence, the study postulates that the novel nanoemulsion gel of apigenin can be proved fruitful for the treatment of skin cancer in near future.     

原花青素纳米乳的制备及其质量评价*

目的:研制原花青素纳米乳制剂并对其进行质量评价。方法:采用伪三元相图法进行处方筛选,并考察纳米乳的理化性质、稳定性及安全性。结果:制备的原花青素纳米乳,在透射电镜下观察为球状液滴,平均粒径为40 nm,影响因素实验表明该纳米乳制剂稳定,并对完整皮肤无毒性和刺激性。结论:原花青素纳米乳制备简单,性质稳定,有望成为原花青素新制剂。     

雷公藤多苷纳米乳的制备及其理化性质评价

目的:研制雷公藤多苷纳米乳并对其理化性能、稳定性等进行评价。方法:结合雷公藤多苷在不同的油和表面活性剂中的溶解度以及伪三元相图的绘制,研制雷公藤多苷纳米乳,并对其类型、形态、粒径、理化参数及稳定性进行考察。结果:雷公藤多苷在聚氧乙烯氢化蓖麻油(RH-40)和肉豆蔻酸异丙酯(IPM)中溶解度较大,且以RH-40为表面活性剂,IPM为油相时纳米乳形成区域最大,最终纳米乳配方确定为RH-40∶IPM∶水,重量比为27∶3.3∶69.7,其中可添加浓度小于5%的透皮促渗剂氮酮;制备的雷公藤多苷纳米乳为棕黄色,澄清透明,流动性良好的O/W型纳米乳,该纳米乳粒子形态主要为圆球形,平均粒径为23.6nm,稳定性良好。结论:研制的雷公藤多苷纳米乳是质量稳定的新制剂。     

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) for oral delivery of protein drugs: I. Formulation development

The global aim of this research project was to develop a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) for non-invasive delivery of protein drugs. The specific aim of this study was to develop SNEDDS formulations. An experimental design was adopted to develop SNEDDS. Fluorescent labeled beta-lactamase (FITC-BLM), a model protein, was loaded into SNEDDS through solid dispersion technique. The experimental design provided 720 compositions of different oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant at various ratios, of which 33 SNEDDS prototypes were obtained. Solid dispersion of FITC-BLM in SoyPC prepared was able to dissolve in 16 SNEDDS prototypes (approximately 2200mU BLM in 1g SNEDDS). SNEDDS NE-12-7 (composition: Lauroglycol FCC, Cremophor EL and Transcutol; ratio: 5:4:3) formed O/W nanoemulsion with mean droplet size in the range of 22-50nm when diluted with various pH media and different dilution factor with PBS (pH 7.4). The phase diagram of NE-12-7 indicated a broad region of nanoemulsion. BLM-loaded SNEDDS (NE-12-7) stored at 4 degrees C for 12 weeks indicated 10% loss of BLM activity. A SNEDDS was developed to load FITC-BLM into the oil phase which can spontaneously form O/W nanoemulsion upon the addition of water.     

硫酸沙丁胺醇油包水型口服纳米乳的制备及小肠吸收考察

目的研究硫酸沙丁胺醇油包水(W/O)型口服纳米乳的成乳条件及小肠吸收情况。方法采用两种制备方法考察不同制备条件对纳米乳形成的影响;采用伪三元相图法考察油相与司盘80的不同配比对成乳区域的影响,求出W/O型纳米乳形成区域;采用HPLC法测定纳米乳中硫酸沙丁胺醇的含量;采用大鼠在体小肠循环法初步考察该纳米乳的口服吸收情况。结果在本实验范围内,稳定且含水量较高、有实际应用价值的W/O型纳米乳的优化处方为豆油、司盘80、吐温80、蒸馏水的质量比为22.8∶22.8∶45.5∶8.9。根据最优处方,将水溶性药物硫酸沙丁胺醇溶于水相中,制得了W/O型纳米乳。大鼠在体小肠循环吸收试验初步证明了该纳米乳具有缓释作用。结论W/O型纳米乳可作为水溶性药物的缓控释制剂的载体。     

氢溴酸东莨菪碱微乳的制备及其体外透皮吸收研究

目的：探讨微乳组分对其理化性质及其体外透皮吸收性质的影响。方法：以聚氧乙烯氢化蓖麻油（CremophorRH-40）-乙醇-油酸聚乙二醇甘油酯（Labrafil M1944CS）-水作为微乳的组成成分,制备水包油型微乳。考察各微乳粒径、黏度值,同时考察微乳水相含量、油相含量、乳化剂含量和Km值对其透皮吸收性质的影响。结果：氢溴酸东莨菪碱微乳粒径、黏度值及透皮吸收率受多种因素的影响,包括Km值、水相含量、油相含量等结论：具有最大透皮渗透量及适宜粒径、黏度值的微乳体系处方为：乳化剂（CremophorRH-40＋无水乙醇,Km=2：1）30％,油相Labrafil10％,三蒸水58．5％,氢溴酸东莨菪碱1．5％。     

Formulation and characterization of propolis and tea tree oil nanoemulsion loaded with clindamycin hydrochloride for wound healing: In-vitro and in-vivo wound healing assessment

This study aimed to develop propolis and tea tree oil nanoemulsion loaded with clindamycin hydrochloride to heal wound effectively. Nanoemulsion formulae were prepared and characterized by droplet size analysis, zeta potential, viscosity, ex-vivo permeation, and skin deposition. The optimal formula was evaluated in terms of morphology, cytotoxicity, and in-vitro wound healing assay. Also, the efficacy of the optimal formula was evaluated by in-vivo wound healing and histopathological studies. The optimal formula (F3) was composed of 9% tea tree oil and 0.4% propolis extracts with mean droplet size 19.42 ± 1.7 nm, zeta potential value −24.5 ± 0.2 mV, and viscosity 69.4 ± 1.8 mP. Furthermore, the optimal formula showed the highest skin deposition value 550.00 ± 4.9 µg/cm² compared to other formulae. The TEM micrograph of the optimal formula showed that the nanoemulsion droplet has an almost spherical shape. Also, the optimal formula did not show noticeable toxicity to the human skin fibroblast cells. The in-vitro and in-vivo wound healing assay showed unexpected results that the un-loaded drug nanoemulsion formula had a comparable wound healing efficacy to the drug-loaded nanoemulsion formula. These results were confirmed with histopathological studies. Our results showed that the propolis and tea tree oil nanoemulsion, whether loaded or unloaded with an antibiotic, is an efficient local therapy for wound healing.     

Preparation of liposomal brucine and its pharmaceutical/pharmacodynamic characterization

Aim： To prepare a novel transdermal preparation of liposomal brucine （LB） and investigate its pharmaceutical/pharmacodynamic characterization. Methods： LB was prepared by a modified ethanol-dripping method. Its drug encapsulation efficiency （EE）, particle size, in vitro release, and skin permeation were studied. Furthermore, a safety evaluation and pharmacodynamic analysis of LB, including acute dermal toxicity, skin irritation, and analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects were investigated. Results： the EE of LB was 72% and the mean particle size of the liposomes was 55.4 nm. The in vitro release profile indicated that less than 68% of the encapsulated brucine was released in 10 h. A skin permeation study showed that compared with the free brucine, LB exhibited higher cumulative drug permeation through the skin and lower drug accumulation in skin tissue, indicative of an obvious promotion of skin permeation with liposomal encapsulation. The acute dermal LD50 of LB was greater than 100 mg/kg （brucine content） and skin irritation tests revealed that LB had no irritation to both integrity and broken skin. A pharmacodynamic evaluation of LB was performed by xylene-induced mouse ear edema test and acetic acid-induced writhing test at the dosage of 1.5, 3, and 6 mg/kg, respectively. The results showed that anti-inflammatory activities and analgesic effects of brucine encapsulated were significantly higher than that of the free brucine （P〈0.01）. Moreover, LB maintained a remarkably longer antiinflammatory and analgesic duration. Conclusion： It can be proposed that LB prepared here could represent a safe, effective and promising transdermal formulation for analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects.     

苍艾油传递体凝胶的制备及其体外释药研究

目的：制备苍艾油传递体凝胶,并对其进行质量评价及体外释放度考察。方法：以黏附性及稳定性为主要的评价指标,通过L₉（3⁴）正交试验设计优选苍艾油传递体凝胶的制备处方;在此基础上以丁香酚为指标成分,通过HPLC法对苍艾油传递体凝胶的体外释放规律进行探索。结果：苍艾油传递体凝胶制备的较优处方为卡波姆0.2 g、丙三醇0.9 g、pH 6.5、苍艾油传递体3.75 g、生理盐水1.5 g;影响因素考察结果显示对凝胶中丁香酚含量的影响温度>湿度>光照;家兔皮肤刺激性试验结果显示苍艾油传递体凝胶单次给药24 h后无皮肤刺激性;体外释放度考察结果显示苍艾油传递体凝胶组在72 h时药物的累积释放率达80.73%,显著高于苍艾油普通凝胶组,二者差异具有统计学意义（P<0.01）。结论：通过研磨法制备苍艾油传递体凝胶制备工艺简单,制得的苍艾油传递体凝胶具有良好的皮肤相容性,在一定程度上能增加苍艾油中成分的累积释放量,是一种具有潜力的苍艾油脂质载体经皮给药制剂。     

Preparation and in vivo evaluation of indomethacin loaded true nanoemulsions

Indomethacin, a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, has been used in the treatment of various kinds of pains, inflammation and arthritis. However, oral administration of indomethacin produces serious gastrointestinal adverse effects. Therefore the aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects, skin irritation, activation energy and histopathology of indomethacin from transdermally applied true nanoemulsion. The anti-inflammatory effects of true nanoemulsions were compared with marketed Indobene^® gel on carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. Skin irritation tests were performed on Wistar rats for 14 days. The % inhibition value after 12 h application was significant for optimized formulation F6 (83) as compared to marketed Indobene^® gel (P<0.01). Results of skin irritation test indicated that developed true nanoemulsion is safe for human use. The significant decrease in activation energy (1.396 kcal/mol) for indomethacin across rat skin indicated that the stratum corneum lipid bilayers were significantly disrupted (P<0.05). From these results it was concluded that the developed nanoemulsion have great potential for transdermal application of indomethacin.     

正交实验法优选沙棘果油的提取工艺

目的优选沙棘果油的提取工艺。方法采用正交实验设计,以沙棘果油提油量和棕榈酸含量为指标优化提取工艺;并采用气相色谱法测定棕榈酸的含量。结果优选提取工艺条件为果浆加热至60℃,以8 000r·min-1离心10min。结论该提取工艺简单、稳定。     

Cremophor RH40-PEG 400 microemulsions as transdermal drug delivery carrier for ketoprofen

The aim of this study was to prepare novel microemulsion for transdermal drug delivery of ketoprofen (KP). The microemulsion composed of ketoprofen as model drug, isopropyl myristate (IPM) as oil phase, surfactant mixture consisting of polyoxyl 40 hydrogenated castor oil (Cremophor RH40) as surfactant and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG400) as co-surfactant at the ratio 1:1, and water were prepared. The viscosity, droplet size, pH, conductivity of microemulsions, and skin permeation of KP through shed snake skin were evaluated. The particle size, pH, viscosity and conductivity of microemulsions were in the range of 114-210 nm, 6.3-6.8, 124-799 cPs and 1-45 μS/cm, respectively. The ratio of IPM, and surfactant mixture played the important role in the skin permeation of KP microemulsions. As the amount of surfactant mixture and IPM increased, the skin permeation of KP decreased. The formulation composed of 30% IPM, 45% surfactant mixture and 25% water showed the highest skin permeation flux. The incorporation of terpenes in the 2.5% KP microemulsions resulted in significant enhancement in skin permeation of KP. The rank order of enhancement ratio for skin permeation enhancement of terpenes was α-pinene > limonene > menthone. The results suggested that the novel microemulsion system containing IPM, water, Cremophor RH40:PEG400 and terpenes can be applied for using as a transdermal drug delivery carrier.     

Preparation and characterization of solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with total flavones of Hippophae rhamnoides (TFH)

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) containing total flavones of Hippophae rhamnoides (TFH) were prepared by high-pressure homogenization (HPH), by both hot HPH and cold HPH. The influence of process parameters (lipid matrix, lipid concentration, carbohydrate type and its concentration) on the SLN size distribution, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, crystal form, and in vitro release profile was investigated. The highest entrapment efficiency for TFH, at around 93%, was found for SLNs composed of TFH/Compritol 888 ATO in a 1:30 molar ratio and made by cold HPH. The advantages of TFH SLNs are the improved oral bioavailability of TFH and the prolonged mean retention time and drug release time.