Food advertising on Australian television: the extent of children's exposure

The objective of this study was to investigate the extent and nature of food advertising during Australian children's television (TV) viewing hours and programs, and to determine whether confectionery and fast food restaurant advertisements were more likely to be broadcast during children's programs than during adults' programs on Sydney television stations. One week (390 h) of Australian advertising data broadcast during children's TV viewing hours over 15 television stations were analysed to determine the proportion of food advertisements and, in turn, the proportion of those advertisements promoting foods high in fat and/or sugar. One week (346 h) of confectionery and fast food restaurant advertisements broadcast over three Sydney television stations were analysed to determine whether these types of advertisements were more likely to be advertised during children's programs than adults' programs. Half of all food advertisements promoted foods high in fat and/or sugar. 'Confectionery' and 'fast food restaurants' were the most advertised food categories during children's TV viewing hours. Confectionery advertisements were three times as likely, and fast food restaurant advertisements twice as likely, to be broadcast during children's programs than adults' programs. It can be concluded that foods most advertised during children's viewing hours are not those foods that contribute to a healthy diet for children. Confectionery and fast food restaurant advertising appears to target children. Australian children need protection from the targeted promotion of unhealthy foods on television, but currently little exists.     

Television food advertising in Singapore: the nature and extent of children's exposure

Television advertising is an effective medium for reaching young children and influencing their food choice. Studies have shown that messages conveyed by food advertisements are rarely consistent with healthy eating messages. With the increasing purchasing power of children, food companies are focusing on children as lucrative target audiences. Extensive marketing of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods to children potentially contributes to the 'obesogenic' environment. This study aims to determine the degree and nature of food advertisements that Singaporean children are exposed to on television. Ninety-eight hours of children's television programmes broadcast by free-to-air stations were recorded and analysed. Advertisements with the intent of selling and sponsorships for programmes were included. Foods advertised were considered healthy if they met the criteria of the Healthier Choice Symbol in Singapore. Of the 1344 advertisements and sponsorships identified, 33% were for food. Of the food advertisements, 38% were considered healthy, while 57% were not. Candy, confectionery and fast food advertisements accounted for 46% of total food advertisements. Significantly more unhealthy food advertisements were screened on weekends compared with weekdays (p < 0.001). This is the first content analysis of television advertisements in Singapore and the results of this study provide background data on the extent of food advertising that children in Singapore are exposed to. Consistent with other countries, unhealthy food advertisements continue to dominate children's television programmes. This study suggests that Singaporean children are exposed to high levels of advertising for unhealthy foods. The study provides a baseline against which measures aimed at reducing children's exposure to television food advertising can be evaluated.     

Association between food marketing exposure and adolescents' food choices and eating behaviors

The present study examined associations between food marketing exposure and adolescents’ food choices and reported consumption of energy-dense and nutrient-poor (EDNP) foods. A cross-sectional survey of 12,188 Australian secondary students aged 12-17 years was conducted, using a web-based self-report questionnaire. Measures included students’ level of exposure to commercial television and non-broadcast types of food marketing, whether they had tried a new product or requested a product they had seen advertised, and their reported consumption of fast food, sugary drinks and sweet and salty snacks. Results indicated greater exposure to commercial television, print/transport/school food marketing and digital food marketing were all independently associated with students’ food choices. High commercial television viewers (>2 h/day) were more likely to report higher consumption of EDNP foods (ORs ranged from 1.31 for fast food to 1.91 for sweet snacks). Some associations between digital food marketing exposure and students’ eating behaviors were found; however, print/transport/school food marketing was only related to sweet snack consumption. These study results suggest that cumulative exposure to television food advertising and other food marketing sources are positively linked to adolescents’ food choices and eating behaviors. Policy changes to restrict food marketing to young people should include both television and non-broadcast media.     

Nine out of 10 food advertisements shown during Saturday morning children's television programming are for foods high in fat, sodium, or added sugars, or low in nutrients

A 2005 review by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies concluded that food marketing influences children's food preferences, consumption, and health. Given the powerful influence of marketing on children's diets, this cross-sectional study examined the types of foods, the nutritional quality of those foods, and the marketing techniques and messages used in food advertising during Saturday morning children's television programming. During 27.5 hours of programming in May 2005, 49% of advertisements shown were for food (281 food advertisements out of 572 total advertisements). The most commonly advertised food categories were ready-to-eat breakfast cereal and cereal bars (27% of all food advertisements), restaurants (19% of food advertisements), and snack foods (18% of food advertisements). Ninety-one percent of food advertisements were for foods or beverages high in fat, sodium, or added sugars or were low in nutrients. Cartoon characters were used in 74% of food advertisements, and toy or other giveaways were used in 26% of food advertisements. About half of food advertisements contained health/nutrition or physical activity messages and 86% of food advertisements contained emotional appeals. This study provides food and nutrition professionals with information about the amount and types of food children are encouraged to eat during Saturday morning television programming. The findings can help food and nutrition professionals counsel children about healthful eating and/or develop programs or policies to balance those advertisements with healthful eating messages.     

Analysis of advertising in the multimedia environment of children and adolescents in Peru

I examined advertising of healthy and unhealthy food and beverage products across television, Facebook, outdoors, and bodegas. I used content analysis to describe the types of advertised food products, the persuasive techniques of the advertisements of these products, and the portrayals of eating behaviors on food advertising. Findings revealed that food promotion was more prominent in point-of-purchase advertising and less on television. The three most common advertised products were sweets, sugary drinks, and fast-food restaurants, and the persuasive techniques most commonly associated with food and beverage advertisements were appeals to the flavor/taste/smell/texture, nutritional quality, competitive/unique, and newness of the product; only one emotional appeal stood out in one medium: family bonding was frequent on television. This study is one of the few that have collectively surveyed food advertising that children and adolescents are likely to find in their multimedia environment.     

Persuasive food marketing to children: use of cartoons and competitions in Australian commercial television advertisements

While there is a recognized link between high levels of exposure to advertising of unhealthy foods and overweight and obesity among children, there is little research on the extent to which these exposures include persuasive marketing techniques. This study aimed to measure children's exposure to the use of persuasive marketing within television food advertisements. Advertisements broadcast on all three commercial Australian television channels were recorded for an equivalent 1 week period in May 2006 and 2007 (714 h). Food advertisements were analysed for their use of persuasive marketing, including premium offers, such as competitions, and the use of promotional characters, including celebrities and cartoon characters. Advertised foods were categorized as core, non-core or miscellaneous foods. Commercial data were purchased to determine children's peak viewing times and popular programs. A total of 20 201 advertisements were recorded, 25.5% of which were for food. Significantly more food advertisements broadcast during children's peak viewing times, compared to non-peak times, contained promotional characters (P < 0.05) and premium offers (P < 0.001). During programs most popular with children, there were 3.3 non-core food advertisements per hour containing premium offers, compared to 0.2 per hour during programs most popular with adults. The majority of advertisements containing persuasive marketing during all viewing periods were for non-core foods. Persuasive marketing techniques are frequently used to advertise non-core foods to children, to promote children's brand recognition and preference for advertised products. Future debate relating to television advertising regulations must consider the need to restrict the use of persuasive marketing techniques to children.     

The effects of different regulation systems on television food advertising to children

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to model children's potential exposure to television food advertisements under different regulatory scenarios to demonstrate the policy implications of regulatory change in Australia. METHODS: Television advertising data was collected from Sydney commercial television channels from 14-20 May 2006. Extrapolating from these data, the patterns of food advertising under four regulatory scenarios were examined, including arrangements restricting the content, volume and timing of advertisements. RESULTS: Each scenario resulted in a reduction of total and non-core food advertisements. The scenario to restrict non-core food advertisements during the major viewing period (7:00-20:30) led to the largest reduction in total and non-core food advertisements (79.2% reduction), with no change in the frequency of core food advertisements. CONCLUSIONS: The results illustrate the potential for reducing children's exposure to food advertising through simple regulatory restrictions. IMPLICATIONS: This research contributes to future debates on the regulation of television food advertising. It is particularly relevant as Australian regulations will be under review in 2007.     

The 30-second effect: an experiment revealing the impact of television commercials on food preferences of preschoolers

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether televised food commercials influence preschool children's food preferences. DESIGN: In this randomized, controlled trial, preschool children viewed a videotape of a popular children's cartoon either with or without embedded commercials. Children were then asked to identify their preferences from pairs of similar products, one of which was advertised in the videotape with embedded commercials. Preschoolers' parents were interviewed to determine children's demographic characteristics and media use patterns. SUBJECTS: Forty-six 2- to 6-year-olds from a Head Start program in northern California. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: For demographic and media use characteristics, univariate data were examined and Student t and chi 2 tests were used to test for differences between the control and treatment groups. We calculated the Cochran Q statistic to assess whether the proportion of those choosing advertised food items was significantly higher in the treatment group than in the control group. RESULTS: Children exposed to the videotape with embedded commercials were significantly more likely to choose the advertised items than children who saw the same videotape without commercials (Qdiff = 8.13, df = 1, P < .01). CONCLUSIONS/APPLICATIONS: Even brief exposures to televised food commercials can influence preschool children's food preferences. Nutritionists and health educators should advise parents to limit their preschooler's exposure to television advertisements. Furthermore, advocates should raise the public policy issue of advertising and young children, especially given the recent epidemic of childhood obesity and the ever-changing media environment.     

Youth exposure to alcohol advertising on radio--United States, June-August 2004

In the United States, more underage youth drink alcohol than smoke tobacco or use illicit drugs. Excessive alcohol consumption leads to many adverse health and social consequences and results in approximately 4,500 deaths among underage youth each year. Recent studies have emphasized the contribution of alcohol marketing to underage drinking and have demonstrated that a substantial proportion of alcohol advertising appears in media for which the audience composition is youth-oriented (i.e., composed disproportionately of persons aged 12-20 years). To determine the proportion of radio advertisements that occurred on radio programs with audiences composed disproportionately of underage youth and the proportion of total youth exposure to alcohol advertising that occurs as a result of such advertising, researchers at the Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth (Health Policy Institute, Georgetown University, District of Columbia) evaluated the placement of individual radio advertisements for the most advertised U.S. alcohol brands and the composition of audiences in the largest 104 markets in the United States. This report summarizes the results of that study, which indicate that alcohol advertising is common on radio programs which have disproportionately large youth audiences and that this advertising accounts for a substantial proportion of all alcohol radio advertising heard by underage youth. These results further indicate that 1) the current voluntary standards limiting alcohol marketing to youth should be enforced and ultimately strengthened, and 2) ongoing monitoring of youth exposure to alcohol advertising should continue.     

Linkages Between Materialism and Young People's Television and Advertising Exposure in a US Sample

The message to consume appears not only in advertising, but also in much of television content. The present study examines the roles that television exposure, advertising recognition, and family communication play in stimulating materialism in children. We also examine the relationship between materialism and contentedness. A survey administered to 212 children aged 10–14 demonstrated that television exposure, advertising recognition, trust in advertising, and consumer communication each predict materialistic values. Concept-oriented family communication did not moderate the relationship between advertising/television and materialism. Higher levels of television exposure predicted lower levels of contentedness, but materialism was not related to contentedness.     

Internet food marketing strategies aimed at children and adolescents: a content analysis of food and beverage brand web sites

Americans are spending an increasing amount of time using "new media" like the Internet. There has been little research examining food and beverage Web sites' content and marketing practices, especially those that attract children and adolescents. The purpose of this study was to conduct a content analysis of food- and beverage-brand Web sites and the marketing techniques and advertising strategies present on these sites. The top five brands in eight food and beverage categories, 40 brands in total, were selected based on annual sales data from Brandweek magazine's annual "Superbrands" report. Data were collected using a standardized coding form. The results show a wide variety of Internet marketing techniques and advertising strategies targeting children and adolescents. "Advergaming" (games in which the advertised product is part of the game) was present on 63% of the Web sites. Half or more of the Web sites used cartoon characters (50%) or spokescharacters (55%), or had a specially designated children's area (58%) with a direct link from the homepage. With interactive media still in its developmental stage, there is a need to develop safeguards for children. Food and nutrition professionals need to advocate for responsible marketing techniques that will support the health of children.     

Food Marketing to Children on U.S. Spanish-Language Television

Latino children in particular are at risk of childhood obesity. Because exposure to televised food marketing is a contributor to childhood obesity, it is important to examine the nutritional quality of foods advertised on Spanish-language children's programming. The authors analyzed a sample of 158 Spanish-language children's television programs for its advertising content and compared them with an equivalent sample of English-language advertising. The authors evaluated nutritional quality of each advertised product using a food rating system from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. In addition, the authors assessed compliance with industry self-regulatory pledges. The authors found that amount of food advertising on Spanish-language channels (M = 2.2 ads/hour) was lower than on English-language programs, but the nutritional quality of food products on Spanish-language channels was substantially poorer than on English channels. Industry self-regulation was less effective on Spanish-language channels. The study provides clear evidence of significant disparities. Food advertising targeted at Spanish-speaking children is more likely to promote nutritionally poor food products than advertising on English-language channels. Industry self-regulation is less effective on Spanish-language television channels. Given the disproportionately high rate of childhood obesity among Latinos, the study's findings hold important implications for public health policy.     

Perceptions of Food Advertising and Association With Consumption of Energy-Dense Nutrient-Poor Foods Among Adolescents in the United States: Results From a National Survey

The advertising and marketing of energy-dense, nutrient-poor (EDNP) food and drink has been cited as one contributor to unhealthy eating behaviors in adolescents. The present study examines perceptions about and trust in food advertising and their association with consumption of EDNP foods and drinks among adolescents in the United States. Data (n = 1,384) come from the U.S. National Cancer Institute’s Family Life, Activity, Sun, Health, and Eating Survey. One way ANOVAs were conducted to assess differences between population subgroups in advertising perceptions. Bivariate and multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the associations between perceptions toward and trust in food advertising and consumption of EDNP foods and drinks, controlling for sociodemographic factors. Results show that there are significant differences between racial/ethnic groups on advertising perceptions (F = 16.32, p = < .0001). As positive perceptions toward food advertising increase among adolescents, there is an associated increase in daily frequency of consumption of EDNP foods and drinks (β = 0.10, p < .01). Similarly, the more adolescents agreed that they trusted food advertising, the higher the reported daily frequency of EDNP food and drink consumption (β = 0.08, p = .01). Targeting perceptions about food advertising may be a worthy intervention strategy to reduce the impact of food marketing and the consumption of heavily advertised EDNP foods and drinks among adolescents.     

Do television food advertisements portray advertised foods in a 'healthy' food context?

Exposure to food promotion influences food preferences and diet. As food advertisements tend to promote 'less healthy' products, food advertising probably plays some role in the 'obesity epidemic'. Amid calls for increased regulation, food manufacturers are beginning to engage in a variety of health-promoting marketing initiatives. Positioning products in the context of a 'healthy', balanced diet in television advertisements is one such initiative. We explored whether the wider food context in which foods are advertised on television are 'healthier' than the advertised foods themselves. All foods shown in food advertisements broadcast during 1 week on one commercial UK channel were identified and classified as 'primary' (i.e. the focus of advertisements) or 'incidental'. The nutritional content of all foods was determined and that of primary and incidental foods were compared. Almost two-thirds of food advertisements did not include any incidental foods. When a wider food context was present, this tended to be 'healthier' than the primary foods that were the focus of food advertisements - particularly in terms of the food groups represented. It is not yet clear what effect this may have on consumers' perceptions and behaviour, and whether or not this practice should be encouraged or discouraged from a public health perspective.     

Children’s measured exposure to food and beverage advertising on television in Toronto (Canada), May 2011–May 2019

ObjectiveExposure to unhealthy food advertising is a known determinant of children’s poor dietary behaviours. The purpose of this study was to quantify and characterize Canadian children’s exposure to food advertising on broadcast television and examine trends over time.MethodsObjectively measured advertising exposure data for 19 food categories airing on 30 stations broadcast in Toronto were licenced for May 2011 and May 2019. Using ad ratings data, the average number of food advertisements viewed by children aged 2–11 years, overall, by food category and by type of television station (child-appealing, adolescent-appealing and generalist stations), was estimated per time period.ResultsIn May 2019, children viewed an average of 136 food advertisements on television, 20% fewer than in May 2011. More than half of advertisements viewed in May 2019 promoted unhealthy food categories such as fast food (43% of exposure), candy (6%), chocolate (6%) and regular soft drinks (5%) and only 17% of their total exposure occurred on child-appealing stations. Between May 2011 and May 2019, children’s exposure increased the most, in absolute terms, for savory snack foods (+7.2 ad exposures/child), fast food (+5.4) and regular soft drinks (+5.3) with most of these increases occurring on generalist stations.ConclusionCanadian children are still exposed to advertisements promoting unhealthy food categories on television despite voluntary restrictions adopted by some food companies. Statutory restrictions should be adopted and designed such that children are effectively protected from unhealthy food advertising on both stations intended for general audiences and those appealing to younger audiences.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.17269/s41997-021-00528-1.     

The use of negative themes in television food advertising

The ability of food advertising to trigger food consumption and influence social norms relating to food consumption has resulted in increasing attention being given to the prevalence and nature of food advertising. The present study investigated the use of negative themes in food advertisements aired on Australian television to determine the prevalence of depictions of violence/aggression, mocking, nagging, boredom, loneliness, food craving, mood enhancement, and the emotional use of food across 61 days of programming time. The results suggest that advertisers are using negative themes to capture attention and invoke an emotional response in the target audience. Sixteen percent (14,611) of the 93,284 food advertisements contained negative themes, with mood enhancement and food craving being the most commonly depicted negative themes. Advertisements with negative themes were more likely to be for non-core foods and to be aired during children's popular viewing times than at other times. The potential for negative themes in food advertising to promote unhealthy food consumption behaviors among children is likely to be of concern to policy makers. Building on this exploratory study, further research is needed to investigate how nutrition-related decision making is affected by exposure to food advertisements employing negative emotional themes.     

Association between family variables and Mexican American children's dietary behaviors

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between family variables and children's diets. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study with households sampled using random-digit dialing. Children completed a one-time, self-administered survey, and mothers participated in a face-to-face structured interview. SETTING: Data collection occurred in southern San Diego County on the U.S.-Mexico border. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred sixty-seven Mexican American children between 8 and 18 years of age and their mothers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Diet: number of snacks, candies and sweets, and sodas consumed daily; dietary fat and fiber; and money spent weekly on fast food and snacks. Family variables: household size, family support for healthful eating, number of meals eaten together, availability of fast food in the home, food ads seen on television, and parent purchasing food products that children saw advertised on television. DATA ANALYSES: Regression analyses were used to examine the independent contributions of family variables on dietary intake. Statistical significance was set at P < .05. RESULTS: Greater family support for healthful eating was associated with fewer snacks and more fiber consumed. Children of parents who purchased food products that their children had seen advertised on television reported consuming more snacks and more fat, and they spent more money on fast food and snacks. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Family-based interventions are needed to moderate the potential influence of television-advertised food products on children's requests for these food products.     

The extent and nature of televised food advertising to New Zealand children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE: There has been international concern over the balance of television advertising for healthy and less-healthy foods to which children and adolescents are exposed. This study examined the extent to which 9-17 year old New Zealanders were exposed to advertising for different food groups over a year and compared New Zealand rates of advertising with a 13-country study. METHOD: 'People meter' data collected over three months--May and September 1995 and February 1996--and food advertising from a sample week of television during hours when children were likely to be watching were also examined. Comparison was made with a similar 1989 South Australian study and an international study covering 13 countries. RESULTS: Both the exposure estimated for a year and the opportunities for exposure during the sample week were highest for sweet snacks, drinks, fast food/takeaways and breakfast cereals. There were very low levels for fruit, vegetables, and meat/fish/eggs. Water was not advertised in any sample month. Comparisons with the 13-country study showed New Zealand had the third-highest rate of food advertising, the highest rate of confectionery and drinks advertising, and the second-highest rate of restaurant advertising which included fast food restaurants. CONCLUSION: Current patterns of food advertising pose a conflict of interest between public health and commercial interests. Regulation of food advertising may be needed to address this in order to improve future health.     

Adolescent screen-viewing behaviour is associated with consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages: the role of habit strength and perceived parental norms

The association between adolescent screen-viewing behaviour (i.e., television viewing and computer use) and the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages was studied in a Dutch sample of adolescents (N=383) using self-administered questionnaires. In particular, the previously understudied role of habit and perceived parental norms in the execution of these behaviours was investigated. Results showed that screen-viewing behaviour was associated with consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (r=.32). Habit strength of both behaviours correlated with a large effect size (r=.50). The interaction between both behaviours was underlined by the finding that consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages was explained by perceived parental norms regarding screen-viewing behaviour (beta=.12; adjusted for the behaviour and perceived parental norm regarding sugar-sweetened beverage consumption). Consequences of the identified role of habit and parental norms in the interplay between sedentary behaviour and consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages among adolescents are discussed.     

What's on Malaysian television? - A survey on food advertising targeting children

The Malaysian government recently introduced a ban on fast food advertisements targeting children on television. This study reports on data covering 6 months of television food advertising targeting children. Six out of seven of the Nation's commercial television networks participated (response rate = 85.7%). Based on reported timings of children's programmes, prime time significantly differed ( p <0.05) between weekdays (mean = 1.89 +/- 0.18 hr) and weekends (mean = 4.61 +/- 0.33 hr). The increased trend during weekends, school vacation and Ramadhan was evident. Over the six-month period, the mean number of food advertisements appearing per month varied greatly between television stations (C = 1104; D = 643; F = 407; B = 327; A = 59; E = 47). Food advertising also increased the most in September (n = 3158), followed by July (n = 2770), August (n = 2431), October (n = 2291), November (n = 2245) and June (n = 2211). Content analysis of advertisements indicated snacks were the highest (34.5%), followed by dairy products (20.3%), sugars and candies (13.4%), biscuits (11.2%), fast food (6.7%), breakfast cereal (6.4%), beverages (4.1%), supplements (0.9%), rice (0.6%), noodles (0.5%), bread (0.3%), miscellaneous and processed foods (0.2%). Paradoxically, we found that the frequency of snack food advertised during children's prime time was 5 times more than fast foods. The sodium content (mean = 620 mg per 100g) of these snack foods was found to be highest.