帕金森病伴抑郁和焦虑共病的研究

目的探讨帕金森病(PD)患者伴抑郁和焦虑共病的发生率及其相关因素。方法采用汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMD)、汉密尔顿焦虑量表(HAMA)对480名PD患者和105名正常对照者进行评分,采用统一PD评定量表第Ⅲ部分(UPDRSⅢ)、Hoehn-Yahr(H-Y)分期评定PD患者的运动症状,采用PD非运动症状(NMS)筛查问卷(NMSQ)、PD睡眠量表(PDSS)和蒙特利尔认知测验(MOCA)评定PD患者的NMS。结果 PD组中抑郁的发生率(19.4%)明显高于正常对照组(5.7%),焦虑的发生率(30.4%)明显高于正常对照组(14.3%),抑郁和焦虑共病的发生率(15.8%)也明显高于正常对照组(5.7%)(均P<0.01)。多元Logistc回归分析显示,抑郁的发生与NMSQ评分呈正相关(OR=1.21,95%CI:1.07~1.37);焦虑的发生与女性(OR=1.91,95%CI:1.04~3.50)、H-Y分期(OR=2.87,95%CI:1.23~6.70)、UPDRSⅢ评分(OR=1.03,95%CI:1.00~1.06)及NMSQ评分(OR=1.18,95%CI:1.10~1.26)呈正相关,而与PD...     

帕金森病伴发疲劳的影响因素分析

目的 分析帕金森病(PD)患者疲劳的影响因素及其临床症状特点,为PD伴发疲劳的治疗提供参考。方法 病例对照研究,选取2019年1月-2020年12月包头医学院第二附属医院神经内科收治的155例PD患者,根据疲劳严重度量表(FSS),PD无疲劳组(FSS>4分)59例,PD伴发疲劳组(FSS≤4分)96例。采用统一帕金森病评定量表第三部分(MDS-UPDRSⅢ)、Hoehn-Yahr(H-Y)分级、汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMA)17项、汉密尔顿焦虑量表(HAMD)14项、帕金森病睡眠量表(PDSS)中文版、简易精神状态量表等评估患者的运动症状和非运动症状。采用疲劳量表-14(FS-14)对PD患者的躯体疲劳、脑力疲劳进行评分。PD患者依据MDS-UPDRSⅡ～Ⅲ条目计算震颤类项目总分和姿势异常-步态障碍类项目总分。结果 与非疲劳组比较,疲劳组患者MDS-UPDRSⅢ、H-Y评分、HAMA、HAMD、病程均增高,PDSS降低(P<0.05)。MDS-UPDRSⅢ评分(OR=1.105,P=0.011)、抑郁(OR=1.160,P=0.028)是疲劳的独立危险因素。脑力疲劳与HAM...     

初诊帕金森病患者睡眠质量的性别差异及临床特征分析

目的探讨初诊未服药帕金森病(PD)患者睡眠质量的性别差异及临床特征。方法选取初诊未服药的PD患者259例(其中男性127例,女性132例),收集患者基本临床资料并用PD睡眠量表(PDSS)评估睡眠情况,比较不同性别患者的睡眠情况以及不同运动亚型PD患者睡眠情况的性别差异,并将两组的PDSS评分分别与基本临床资料作相关性分析。结果女性患者PDSS中总体夜间睡眠质量、入睡困难、睡眠维持障碍、夜间遭受梦境困扰、夜间睡眠时出现上肢或下肢的肌肉痛性痉挛、清晨早醒并伴有上肢或下肢疼痛评分及PDSS总分显著低于男性患者(均P0.05)。在震颤为主型PD患者(TD-PD组)中,不同性别患者的教育程度、汉密尔顿焦虑量表(HAMA)、汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMD)及PDSS评分差异有统计学意义(均P0.05);在姿势异常步态障碍型PD患者(PIGD-TD组)中,不同性别患者的病程、教育程度、校正蒙特利尔认知评估量表(MoCA)、HAMA评分有显著差异(均P0.05)。TD-PD组男性PDSS中总体夜间睡眠质量、入睡困难、夜尿和清晨早醒并伴有上肢或下肢疼痛评分及总分显著高于女性(均P0.05)。PIGD-PD组男性PDSS中夜间遭受梦境困扰、清晨早醒并伴有上肢或下肢疼痛评分显著高于女性患者(均P0.05)。Spearman相关性分析显示,男性PD患者PDSS评分与年龄、发病年龄、HAMD评分、HAMA评分、PD非运动症状评定量表(PDNMS)评分、改良Hoehn-Yahr(H-Y)分期、统一PD评定量表(UPDRS)第三部分评分呈负相关(均P0.05),与MMSE呈正相关(P0.05);女性PD患者的PDSS评分与HAMD评分、HAMA评分、PDNMS评分、H-Y分期、UPDRS第二部分评分呈负相关(均P0.05)。结论初诊未服药PD患者中女性的睡眠质量较男性更差。     

帕金森病患者营养状况及其相关因素分析

目的研究帕金森病(PD)患者营养状况及其相关因素。方法收集180名PD患者为研究对象,应用量表系统性评估患者运动及非运动症状,采用微营养评定法(MNA-SF)评估营养状况。结果正常营养状态与非正常营养状态PD患者间病程、统一PD评分量表Ⅲ(UPDRSⅢ)、H-Y分期及非运动症状的差异均有统计学意义(P0.05~0.01)。二元Logistics回归结果显示H-Y分期(OR=2.35,95%CI:1.24~4.45,P=0.007)、抑郁情绪(OR=1.39,95%CI:1.25~1.67,P0.001)与非正常营养状态显著相关。结论 PD患者营养状况与其疾病本身、运动症状、非运动症状密切相关。     

帕金森病和便秘的关系

目的探讨帕金森病(PD)与便秘的关系。方法收集164例便秘PD患者及69例无便秘PD患者的一般资料,采用PD统一评价量表(UPDRS)、Hoehn-Yahr(H-Y)分期、汉密顿抑郁量表(HAMD)评分、克里夫兰量表(CCS)对患者进行评估,根据CCS将便秘患者分为重度便秘亚组和轻度便秘亚组。对结果进行比较。结果便秘组病程显著长于,HAMD评分、左旋多巴等效剂量(LED)、UPDRSⅢ评分及H-Y分期显著高于无便秘组(P0.05~0.01)。非条件Logistic回归显示,PD病程、UPDRSⅢ评分、H-Y分期、LED与PD患者便秘呈正相关(均P0.05)。UPDRSⅢ评分及LED是PD便秘发生的独立危险因素(OR=1.070,95%CI:1.012~1.131,P0.05;OR=1.002,95%CI:1.000~1.004,P0.05)。重度便秘亚组患者PD及便秘病程明显长于,HAMD评分、LED、UPDRSⅢ评分、H-Y分期显著高于轻度便秘亚组(P0.05~0.01)。非条件Logistic回归分析显示,PD病程、便秘病程、HAMD评分、UPDRSⅢ评分、H-Y分期、LED与便秘严重程度呈正相关(OR=1.237,1.564,1.055,1.071,1.776,1.002;P0.05~0.01)。HAMD评分是重度便秘的独立危险因素(OR=1.056,95%CI:1.001~1.115,P0.05)。结论 PD患者运动症状重、服用抗PD药物剂量大是PD便秘发生的独立危险因素,抑郁是PD患者重度便秘的独立危险因素。     

初诊未服药帕金森病患者的抑郁特点及危险因素 分析

目的 探讨初诊未服药的帕金森病（PD）患者抑郁的临床特征及危险因素。方法 回顾 性收集 2010 年 10 月至 2019 年 12 月在南京医科大学附属脑科医院神经内科运动障碍门诊初诊未服药的 218 例 PD 患者（PD 组）和 171 名年龄、性别相匹配的健康对照者（对照组）的资料。采用统一 PD 评定量表 （UPDRS）第Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅴ部分评估 PD 患者的运动症状,采用 PD 睡眠量表（PDSS）、蒙特利尔认知评估量表 （MoCA）和非运动症状问卷（NMSQ）评估 PD 患者的非运动症状。采用 24 项汉密尔顿抑郁量表（HAMD- 24）和汉密尔顿焦虑量表（HAMA）评估受试者的抑郁、焦虑程度。比较 PD 组和对照组抑郁发作的发病 率、临床资料的差异,比较帕金森病抑郁（dPD）和非帕金森病抑郁（n-dPD）患者临床症状的差异。采用 多因素 Logistic 回归分析初诊未服药 PD 患者抑郁的危险因素。结果 PD 组 HAMD-24 评分为 8.0（4.0, 13.0）分,dPD 的发病率为 12.4%（27/218）,其中轻度、中度和重度抑郁患者分别为 5 例、18 例和 4 例。对 照组 HAMD-24 评分 2.0（0,2.0）分,抑郁发作的发病率为 6.4%（11/171）,其中轻度、中度和重度抑郁患者 分别为 5 名、5 名和 1 名。两组抑郁程度和抑郁发病率比较,差异有统计学意义（P＜ 0.05）。dPD 组患 者的 HAMD-24 总分及各因子评分、HAMA 评分、NMSQ 评分高于 n-dPD 组,运动分期为早期、姿势异常 步态不稳（PIGD）亚型的患者比例高于 n-dPD 组,UPDRS-Ⅱ评分和 PDSS 评分低于 n-dPD 组（P＜ 0.05）。 HAMA 评分高（OR=1.167,95%CI=1.077～1.265）、NMSQ 评分高（OR=1.235,95%CI=1.052～1.449）和 PIGD 运动障碍亚型（OR=2.024,95%CI=1.053～3.891）是 PD 患者发生抑郁的危险因素（P＜ 0.05）,PDSS 评分高 （OR=0.971,95%CI=0.945～0.997）是 PD 患者发生抑郁的保护因素（P＜ 0.05）。结论 初诊未服药 PD 患 者的抑郁程度以中度抑郁为主,焦虑、非运动症状多、睡眠质量差和 PIGD 型 PD 患者更易患抑郁。     

通过国王帕金森病疼痛量表分析帕金森病患者疼痛的临床特点

目的应用国王帕金森病疼痛量表(KPPS)对帕金森病(PD)患者的疼痛症状进行评估和分类,分析其临床特点。方法收集200例在南昌大学第一附属医院就诊的原发性PD患者的临床资料。运用KPPS量表评估患者的疼痛症状,运用统一PD评分量表第三部分(UPDRSⅢ)、Hoehn-Yahr分级(H-Y)、MMSE、汉密尔顿焦虑量表(HAMA)、汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMD)、日常生活能力量表(ADL)、匹兹堡睡眠质量指数(PSQI)分别评估患者的运动功能、症状的严重程度、认知功能、焦虑状况、抑郁状况、生活自理能力及睡眠情况。将患者分为PD伴疼痛组和不伴疼痛组,对两组进行分析比较,并且寻找PD伴疼痛的相关影响因素。结果PD伴发疼痛的发生率为44.5%,平均KPPS评分为(41.2±26.8)分。患者疼痛部位多为下肢(60.7%)、上肢(22.5%)及腰部(21.3%),其中24例(27%)患者伴两种及两种以上部位疼痛;疼痛类型多为骨骼肌疼痛(61.8%)和肌张力障碍性疼痛(27%),其中伴多种类型疼痛患者17例(19.1%)。PD伴疼痛组与PD不伴疼痛组相比,其病程更长(P=0.022)、左旋多巴等效日剂量更大(P=0.008)、UPDRSⅢ评分更高(P=0.018)、H-Y等级更高(P=0.003)、HAMD评分更高(P<0.001)、HAMA评分更高(P<0.001)、ADL评分更低(P=0.046)以及PSQI评分更高(P<0.001)。多因素Logistic逐步回归分析显示,PD伴发疼痛分别与H-Y分级评分[轻度(OR=1.000),中度(OR=2.394,95%CI:1.281~4.473,P=0.006),重度(OR=3.184,95%CI:1.128~8.986,P=0.029)]和PSQI评分相关(OR=2.068,95%CI:1.129~3.786,P=0.019)。结论PD患者疼痛部位多位于四肢及腰部,最常见的疼痛类型是骨骼肌疼痛。PD伴有疼痛的患者病程更长,病情更严重。KPPS量表可对PD疼痛进行评估及分类,有助于更精准治疗方案的制定。     

不同性别帕金森病患者血尿酸水平的相关性研究

目的研究不同性别帕金森病(PD)患者血尿酸水平的相关影响因素。方法收集72例男性PD患者及56例女性PD患者的临床资料。采取高效液相色谱法检测患者血尿酸水平,分析血尿酸水平与临床资料的相关性。结果相关性分析显示,女性PD患者血尿酸水平与患者年龄、起病年龄呈正相关(r=0.283,P=0.034;r=0.295,P=0.027),与病程、Hoehn-Yahr(H-Y)分级、统一帕金森病评分量表(UPDRS)评分,以及汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMD)、汉密尔顿焦虑量表(HAMA)、MMSE、非运动症状问卷(NMS-Quest)评分间无明显相关性(均P0.05);男性PD患者血尿酸水平与UPDRSⅣ评分、HAMD呈负相关(r=-0.249,P=0.035;r=-0.279,P=0.017),与年龄、起病年龄、病程、H-Y分级、UPDRSⅡ、UPDRSⅢ、UPDRS总分,以及HAMA、MMSE、NMS-Quest评分无明显相关性(均P0.05)。男性和女性患者血尿酸水平与左旋多巴等效剂量(LED)及左旋多巴剂量均呈负相关(均P0.05),与多巴胺受体激动剂剂量无关(均P0.05)。结论女性PD患者年龄越大、起病越晚,血尿酸水平越高;男性PD患者治疗并发症越多、抑郁越重,血尿酸水平越低。PD患者血尿酸水平与患者左旋多巴服用剂量呈反比。     

重复经颅磁刺激治疗帕金森病2年随访

目的随访观察重复经颅磁刺激(r TMS)治疗帕金森病(PD)患者的疗效。方法应用统一PD评分量表第Ⅲ部分(UPDRSⅢ)、Hoehn-Yahr(H-Y)分级、PD非运动症状(NMS)筛查问卷(NMSQ)、PD睡眠量表(PDSS)、汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMD)、汉密尔顿焦虑量表(HAMA)和简易智能量表(MMSE)对37例应用药物和r TMS治疗的PD患者(r TMS+药物组)及45例单纯药物治疗的PD患者(药物组)在基线和2年随访末的运动症状(MS)和非运动症状(NMS)进行评估,对比分析两组患者病情进展。结果 r TMS+药物组2年随访末H-Y分级较基线显著升高(P 0.05);药物组2年随访末UPDRSⅢ、H-Y分级、HAMD、HAMA评分及左旋多巴等效剂量(LED)较基线均显著升高(P 0.05);对两组2年随访末的症状进行比较,药物组的UPDRSⅢ、H-Y分级、HAMD评分及LED较r TMS+药物组升高显著(P 0.05)。结论规律的r TMS辅助常规抗PD药物治疗可减缓PD进展,优于单纯抗PD药物治疗。     

DBS对帕金森病病人精神症状及认知功能的影响

目的 探讨丘脑底核（STN）-深部脑刺激术（DBS）对帕金森病（PD）病人精神症状及认知功能的影响。方法 回顾性分析2016年1月至2019年1月STN-DBS治疗的65例PD的临床资料。术前、术后1年,采用第三版统一帕金森病评分量表（UPDRS-Ⅲ）评估PD开关期运动症状;采用H-Y分期评估病情严重度;采用日常生活能力量表（ADL）评估日常生活能力;采用汉密尔顿焦虑量表（HAMA）评估焦虑情况;采用汉密尔顿抑郁量表（HAMD）评估抑郁情况;采用帕金森睡眠量表（PDSS）评估睡眠障碍情况;采用蒙特利尔认知评估量表（MoCA）和简易智力状态检查量表（MMSE）评估认知功能;采用帕金森患者生活质量问卷（PDQ39）测评生活质量。结果 术后1年,UPDRS-Ⅲ评分、H-Y分期、ADL评分、HAMA评分、HAMD评分、PDQ39评分、MoCA评分及MMSE评分均明显改善（P<0.05）。结论 STN-DBS能够显著改善PD病人运动症状、精神症状、认知功能及生活质量。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.