易误诊为局灶性皮质发育不良Ⅱb型的结节性硬化症之皮质结节临床病理学特征

目的探讨结节性硬化症之皮质结节病理学和分子遗传学特征。方法与结果 2例女性患儿,2岁9个月和15岁,临床表现为发作性双眼斜视和间断性惊恐发作伴四肢抽搐,头部MRI仅表现为局灶性皮质信号异常或多灶性皮质信号可疑异常,临床考虑局灶性皮质发育不良(FCD)。遂采用脑深部电极植入术定位致灶,手术切除多脑叶致灶。大体标本观察可见灰质结节和白质内带状灰质异位。组织学形态,皮质薄厚不均且灰质异位,部分皮质全层可见胞核大、核仁明显、体积巨大的异形细胞,累及白质深部伴钙化,其内可见畸形核神经元和巨大细胞,胶质细胞增生明显。免疫组织化学染色,畸形核神经元胞质神经微丝蛋白呈阳性;巨大细胞胞质胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)和波形蛋白呈阳性,大畸形核神经元和巨大细胞增生的皮质区域GFAP呈弥漫性阳性,提示胶质细胞增生明显。结合临床资料,例1为多脑叶皮质发育不良和肾脏错构瘤、例2为多脑叶皮质结节病变和灰质异位,诊断为疑似的结节性硬化症。进一步行基因检测,例1存在TSC1基因c.647_648del杂合突变(无义突变)、例2存在TSC2基因c.4672GA杂合突变(错义突变),最终诊断为确诊的结节性硬化症。结论结节性硬化症临床表现多样,皮质结节组织学形态与FCDⅡb型有众多重叠之处,仅关注组织学形态和免疫表型易误诊为FCDⅡb型,明确诊断应结合临床表现、影像学和基因检测结果综合判断。     

斯德奇-韦伯综合征伴局灶皮质发育不良Ⅱ A型一例临床及病理分析

目的 总结1例经病理确诊的斯德奇-韦伯综合征患者的临床、影像学特征及病理表现.方法 回顾性分析1例斯德奇-韦伯综合征患者的临床、影像学及病理资料,对切除标本行HE及免疫组织化学染色观察.结果 CT显示左侧额叶条索状钙化;MRI示左侧额叶萎缩,可见低信号沿脑回分布.病理学特点为软脑膜的血管瘤病,病变皮质下沿脑回呈带状分布的钙化灶,同时周围皮质排列构筑紊乱,局部见形态异常神经元散在分布,免疫组织化学显示形态异常神经元(神经元特异核抗原、微管相关蛋白2、神经纤维细丝蛋白、SMI32R阳性,符合局灶皮质发育不良ⅡA型的组织学改变.诊断为斯德奇-韦伯综合征伴有局灶皮质发育不良ⅡA型.结论 斯德奇-韦伯综合征可以伴有局灶皮质发育不良,局灶皮质发育不良是部分斯德奇-韦伯综合征的癫痫起源灶.术前诊断为斯德奇-韦伯综合征的患者需仔细评价其临床资料及影像学、脑电图资料,以确定癫痫的起源,从而完整切除癫痫灶,并在术后进行规范的病理分析,明确是否伴有局灶皮质发育不良.     

Sturge-Weber综合征伴皮层发育不良1例并文献复习

目的探讨Sturge-Weber综合征的临床特点、影像学特征、病理诊断及鉴别诊断。方法分析1例8岁女性Sturge-Weber综合征病人的临床资料、影像学特征,光镜下观察病理学形态并行免疫组化染色检查。结果CT显示左侧顶枕叶条索状钙化;MRI示左侧顶枕叶软脑膜病变,增强后强化明显,强化沿脑回分布。病理学特点表现为软脑膜的静脉性血管瘤,病变皮层下沿脑回呈带状分布的钙化灶,同时伴有皮层发育不良。免疫组化结果：发育不良神经元核抗原阳性,皮层内增生胶质细胞的胶质纤维酸性蛋白和S-100蛋白阳性。结论结合临床病史、影像学资料及病理学形态进行综合性分析才能正确诊断Sturge-Weber综合征。     

儿童和青少年癫相关局灶性皮质发育不良22例临床分析

研究背景局灶性皮质发育不良是一组包括皮质分层异常、细胞结构异常和细微白质异常的疾病,是难治性癫的主要病因。本研究总结儿童和青少年局灶性皮质发育不良的临床表现、脑电图和头部MRI特点,以期提高诊断与治疗水平。方法回顾分析22例儿童和青少年局灶性皮质发育不良患者的临床表现、脑电图和头部MRI特点。结果 22例患者中13例(59.09%)单纯表现为局灶性发作,6例(27.27%)单纯表现为全面性发作,3例(13.64%)表现为局灶性发作继发全面性发作;发作频率较频繁,6例(27.27%)每日均有发作,13例(59.09%)≥1次/月,3例(13.64%)1次/月;21例(95.45%)脑电图监测到异常慢波和样放电。12例MRI显示局灶性皮质发育不良位于额叶,头皮脑电图显示7例(7/12)局灶性额区异常慢波和样放电,2例(2/12)广泛性慢波和棘慢复合波,2例(2/12)颞区尖波,1例(1/12)中央中线少量尖波;单纯局灶性发作7例(7/12),全面性发作4例(4/12),局灶性发作继发全面性发作1例(1/12)。6例MRI显示局灶性皮质发育不良位于顶叶,头皮脑电图显示3例(3/6)局灶性顶区异常慢波和样放电,2例(2/6)颞枕区样放电,1例(1/6)无异常;单纯局灶性发作5例(5/6),局灶性发作继发全面性发作1例(1/6)。2例MRI显示局灶性皮质发育不良位于颞叶,头皮脑电图显示1例(1/2)局灶性颞区异常慢波和样放电,1例(1/2)额区样放电;均为全面性发作。2例MRI显示局灶性皮质发育不良位于岛叶,头皮脑电图显示1例(1/2)双侧颞区样放电,1例(1/2)全导联尖波和尖慢复合波;单纯局灶性发作1例(1/2),局灶性发作继发全面性发作1例(1/2)。结论局灶性皮质发育不良患者通常于学龄前期和学龄期发病,主要呈现局灶性或全面性发作,亦可见其他发作类型,发作频率较频繁;头部MRI是诊断局灶性皮质发育不良的重要方法;治疗方法主要是抗癫药物,发作控制欠佳的患者考虑癫外科手术。     

皮质发育不良性癫痫的超微形态学观察

目的 探讨伴皮质发育不良的难治性癫痫脑组织的超微形态学改变与癫痫发病机制的关系.方法 回顾性分析7例患者的临床资料,对其手术切除的标本进行电镜观察.结果 伴皮质发育不良的难治性癫痫主要发生在巨脑回畸形、灰质异位、皮层发育不良及结构紊乱,电镜下表现为神经组织变性,神经元减少或增多,星形细胞肿胀,突触数苗改变,突触前终末兴奋性递质小泡增多.结论 伴皮质发育不良的难治性癫痫患者脑组织发生了大脑皮质神经元形态异常,固缩变性,皮质结构紊乱,神经毡内突触数量及结构的改变.     

定量评估大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注后少突胶质细胞的病理学变化

目的 探讨大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注后少突胶质细胞的病理学改变.方法 应用改良插线法制作大鼠脑缺血再灌注模型.应用免疫组化方法检测大鼠tau-1蛋白的表达水平,以大鼠白质缺血区tau-1蛋白表达阳性的细胞体积定量少突胶质细胞的损伤,并分析其与神经元核周体损伤的关系.结果 模型组大鼠缺血侧皮质和尾壳核可见大量缺血坏死的神经元及tau-1蛋白表达,而正常对照组大鼠未出现缺血坏死的神经元及tau-1蛋白表达增加;模型组大鼠少突胶质细胞损伤体积和神经元核周体损伤体积呈正相关(r=0.895,P＜0.01).结论 少突胶质细胞易受局灶性缺血性损伤,通过检测tau-1蛋白的表达可定量显示少突胶质细胞的损伤程度,为白质损伤的研究提供评估标准.     

局灶性皮质发育不良Ⅱ型脑组织中新候选基因的体细胞变异

正背景局灶性皮质发育不良(Focal cortical dysplasia,FCD)是大脑发育过程中局部神经元增殖及分化异常而导致的皮质发育畸形,是儿童药物难治性癫痫的常见病因,也是儿童癫痫外科癫痫病灶切除术的主要病理类型。其中FCD Ⅱ型占比最高,其病理主要表现为皮质分层异常,存在异形神经元,伴或不伴气球样细胞,进一步分为FCD Ⅱa和FCD Ⅱb。近十余年来,利用手术切除FCD Ⅱ型脑组织样本进行深度二代测序,并与患者自身外周血或唾液细胞对照,在10%～63%的FCD Ⅱ型患者的病灶脑组织中检测到体细胞突变,突变基因所编     

难治性癫(癎)相关耐药蛋白在局灶性皮质发育不良脑组织中的表达

目的 通过对P-糖蛋白、多药耐药相关蛋白和肺耐药相关蛋白在难治性癫痫相关局灶性皮质发育不良脑组织中表达部位的初步研究,以及对其在不同程度病变脑组织中表达量的比较,进一步阐明难治性癫疴的耐药机制,为癫(癎)患者的临床合理用药提供理论依据.方法 选取16例难治性癫(癎)患者手术切除脑组织标本作为患者组(局灶性皮质发育不良Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型患者各8例),5例无癫(癎)发作病史的胶质瘤患者手术切除脑组织标本的非病灶区域作为对照组.应用Envision二步法进行免疫组织化学标记,观察3种耐药蛋白在脑组织中的表达部位和表达强度;应用Western blot法进行SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳,对3种耐药蛋白在脑组织中的表达进行定量分析.结果 P-糖蛋白主要表达于毛细血管内皮细胞,多药耐药相关蛋白主要表达于脑组织内的神经元成分,肺耐药相关蛋白的表达则涌盖了毛细血管内皮细胞、气球细胞及病灶区域部分基质.3种耐药蛋白在局灶性皮质发育不良脑组织中的表达均显著高于对照组脑组织(P-糖蛋白:0.520±0.121,多药耐药蛋白:0.132±0.018,肺耐药相关蛋白:0.092 4-0.018,U=0.000,P<0.01),其中P-糖蛋白和肺耐药相关蛋白在局灶性皮质发育不良Ⅱ型患者的病灶区域(3.809±0.842、0.655±0.303)表达高于病灶周围区域(2.636 4±0.622、0.290±0.096,U=6.000、4.500,P<0.01).结论 P-糖蛋白、多药耐药相关蛋白和肺耐药相关蛋白在不同程度的局灶性皮质发育不良脑组织中具有不同的表达部位和表达量,提示其作用机制和作用强度有所差异.     

胚胎发育不良性神经上皮瘤的临床病理特征(附1例报告)

目的 探讨胚胎发育不良性神经上皮瘤(DNT)的临床病理特征.方法 回顾性分析1例DNT患者的临床资料.结果 本例为青年男性,首发症状为发作性肢体抽搐伴意识障碍.MRI显示颞叶T1WI低信号,T2WI高信号,无水肿及占位效应.病变由多结节特异性胶质神经元和微囊细纤维黏液性基质等成分组成,肿瘤细胞主要有神经元、少突胶质样细胞(OLC)和星形细胞3种成分,伴有皮质发育不良.免疫组织化学结果为神经元及部分OLC呈神经核抗原、神经突触素、神经元特异性烯醇化酶阳性表达;OLC呈S-100蛋白阳性表达;星形细胞呈胶质纤维酸性蛋白阳性表达;瘤细胞Ki-67阳性率为1％.结论 DNT好发于儿童和年轻人,部分患者有慢性癫痫病史.DNT的组织学特征是神经胶质及神经元成分.     

液氮损伤诱导局灶性皮质发育不良模型鼠脑组织病理特征

目的建立局灶性皮质发育不良(FCD)大鼠模型,观察脑组织病理特征,探讨其与致痫机制的关系。方法采用液氮损伤诱导FCD大鼠模型,对组织切片进行HE染色、Nissl染色、LFB染色、Cajal氯化金升汞染色、Bielschowsky改良法染色、Timm硫化银组化染色和细胞凋亡-Hoechst染色。在解剖镜下取材,并置透射电镜下观察并照相。结果FCD鼠大脑形成一典型微脑回,其皮质及细胞结构异常,微沟底部分细胞丢失,顶树突朝向微沟,同侧海马CA3区与假手术组或对照组海马CA3区比较有较明显的苔藓纤维发芽(P<0.05)。微沟底及周围有致密浓染的凋亡细胞。电镜下可见微脑回周围锥体神经元内线粒体肿胀,内质网扩张等。结论液氮损伤诱导的FCD大鼠模型是模拟人类多小脑回畸形的较理想动物模型。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.