联影直线加速器新型全碳素纤维治疗床对放疗剂量的影响

目的:研究联影直线加速器新型全碳素纤维床床板对放疗剂量的影响。方法:将固体水分别置于治疗床中间(offset=0 cm)、右侧(offset=+10 cm)以及左侧(offset=-10 cm),改变机臂角度,让高能X射线从不同角度穿透治疗床,计算出相对应的衰减因子。结果:对于6 MV的X射线,治疗床板中间处的衰减因子范围是0.043 8~0.085 0,在115°时衰减因子最大;右侧位置的衰减因子范围是0.044 1~0.127 2,在110°时衰减因子最大;左侧位置的衰减因子范围是0.043 2~0.093 1,在110°时衰减因子最大。在180°~130°区间时,治疗床中间、右侧和左侧位置的衰减因子之间的差异较小,且右侧衰减因子高于中间和左侧处。结论:不同的机架角度,在联影直线加速器新型全碳素纤维治疗床床板上不同的位置,对X射线的衰减程度不同。治疗床右侧位置在130°~110°区间对剂量的衰减高于中间和左侧,且在110°时衰减最大,在设计患者后斜野计划时应该尽量避开对剂量衰减程度大的角度。     

应用MatriXX测量西门子PRIMUS加速器治疗床的金属部件对射野剂量分布的影响

目的:测量西门子PRIMUS加速器治疗床的金属部件对射野剂量分布的影响。方法:PRIMUS加速器治疗床由可拆卸的床头、网状碳纤维床板和有机玻璃床板三部分组成,3种床板均有金属部件。本文将MatriXX夹在上下各6 cm厚的IBA固体水体模的中间,对齐MatriXX的测量中心轴与治疗床的中心纵轴,SAD为100 cm,首先通过旋转机架分别确定10 cm×10 cm射野能照到3种床板的金属部件的机架角度范围分别是110°~135°(对侧225°~250°)、115°~140°(对侧220°~245°)、155°~180°(对侧180°~205°)。然后采用6 MV X射线,在上述角度区间每间隔5°设一个野,机器跳数为50 MU,分别进行测量。接着在有机玻璃床板上悬空MatriXX,其它条件不变,重复测量不受治疗床影响下的剂量分布。最后对比分析金属部件的衰减影响。结果:3种床板的金属部件对射线的衰减,在等中心处分别为2.1%~22.4%、1.3%~43.8%、0%~46.7%,最大剂量衰减值分别为12.1%~32.2%、12.9%~65.3%、32.8%~58.3%。结论:PRIMUS加速器治疗床的金属部件对射野剂量分布有较大影响,在治疗摆位时须避开。     

Elekta Infinity直线加速器治疗床对放疗剂量的影响

目的:研究Elekta Infinity直线加速器治疗床在常用X射线能量下对放疗剂量的影响。方法:将圆柱体模体分别置于碳纤维主治疗床、延长板以及治疗床与延长板衔接处正中,旋转机架,分别让6和10 MV高能X射线穿过治疗床,利用指形电离室测量固体水中间的绝对剂量,得出不同角度下的剂量分布,并计算治疗床对X射线的衰减因子。结果:治疗床与延长板衔接处在120°和240°两个机架角处的剂量衰减因子在6和10 MV两种治疗模式下分别达到了36.02%和36.01%以及30.46%和30.63%,而当机架角为140°~220°时,衔接处与主治疗床的剂量衰减因子相近,在6与10 MV能量下的剂量衰减因子平均值及标准差分别为2.56%±0.49%和2.14%±0.39%以及2.55%±0.48%和1.95%±0.41%,机架角由180°增大或减小时两处的剂量衰减均呈上升趋势,二者均在120°和240°附近达到最大;6和10 MV两种能量下延长板在该角度区间的剂量衰减因子平均值及标准差分别为1.55%±0.24%和1.07%±0.25%,并在115°和245°附近达到最大值,剂量衰减因子分别为4.08%和3.97%以及3.20%和3.34%。结论:后斜野主体部分在主治疗床与衔接处对剂量的衰减低于3%,在延长板处对剂量的衰减小于2%,但在120°和240°附近以及115°和245°附近3处位置的剂量衰减会达到最大,需在计划系统中考虑床的影响;此外,主治疗床与延长板衔接处在120°和240°附近对剂量的衰减急剧增大,不适合作为治疗区域,在治疗病人时需注意避免将靶区移到该区域。     

MatriXX电离室矩阵角度修正因子验证及分析

目的:分析射野入射方向及加速器治疗床对MatriXX电离室矩阵角度修正因子的影响。方法:获取MatriXX和MultiCube模体所组成的测量装置的CT影像,并将其导入计划系统,以MatriXX有效测量平面中心为计划中心,设置一能量为8 MV X射线、机器跳数为200 MU、20 cm×20 cm的对称方野,在机架角度为0°～180°范围内以5°为间隔定义射野入射方向,分别计算各入射方向的射野在计划中心点的剂量,并与在相同条件下存在加速器治疗床和无加速器治疗床两种情况下的实际剂量测量结果做比值,得出有无加速器治疗床两种情况的MatriXX电离室矩阵的角度修正因子。应用SPSS13.0软件对这两组现场测量计算得到的MatriXX电离室矩阵角度修正因子值及厂家的给定值之间进行t检验比较。结果:实测得到的有无加速器治疗床的两组MatriXX电离室矩阵角度修正因子值比较的t检结果为P<0.005,治疗床的存在对修正因子有显著的影响;实测的8 MV无治疗床的修正因子与厂家给定的6 MV的修正因子进行比较的t检验结果为P<0.005,实测修正因子与厂家给定值之间存在差异。结论:现场测量MatriXX电离室矩阵的角度修正因...     

加速器治疗床对放疗剂量影响的探讨

目的：观测加速器治疗床对放疗剂量的影响。方法：利用电离室剂量仪和有机玻璃体模对加速器治疗床各部分进行测量，计算床面板对剂量的衰减情况。结果：网状碳纤维床板对剂量的衰减平均在1．5％，有机玻璃床板对剂量的衰减平均在4．8％-5．7％，当射束穿过床旁金属扶杆或床板支撑梁时可产生高达23.7％的剂量衰减。结论：放疗中后野和后侧斜野的照射应该选择网状碳纤维床板，并作相应的剂节补偿，作治疗方案时应避免射束穿过床旁金属扶杆或床板支撑梁。     

均整与非均整模式下TrueBeam加速器治疗床对放疗剂量的影响

目的:探讨均整(FF)与非均整(FFF)模式下瓦里安TrueBeam加速器全碳纤维治疗床对模体中心和表面剂量的影响。方法:将30 cm×30 cm×20 cm的固体水模分别放置于治疗床薄、中、厚段上,模体的中心与加速器等中心重合,德国IBA FC65-G电离室测量等中心的剂量;选取6/10 MV光子束FF/FFF模式4档能量,10 cm×10 cm标准射野,等中心照射,以机架转角0°～80°(间隔10°采样)为参考,计算100°～180°范围与对应角度参考剂量的比值得到对应角度的穿透因子;将EBT3胶片分别置于上述模体表面和底部,对应机架角度为0°和180°,分析相应的百分深度剂量。结果:4档光子束能量下治疗床薄、中、厚段位置穿透因子范围分别为0.956 6～1.000 0、0.955 4～1.000 0和0.954 8～1.000 0,薄中段在6 MV-FFF120°时最小,厚段在6 MV-FFF 130°时最小。与0°照射相比,180°照射6 MV-FFF、6 MV、10 MV-FFF和10 MV X射线表面剂量从30.6%、24.1%、18.3%和14.1%分别增加到95.4%、93%、83%和79.6%。结论:治疗床的存在减少肿瘤剂量、增加表面剂量,FFF模式较FF影响更大,在治疗计划系统中加入虚拟床减小了治疗床引起的剂量学影响。     

医用直线加速器治疗床对放疗剂量影响的研究

目的 探讨西门子医用直线加速器治疗床对放疗剂量影响的研究.方法 将固体水模固定在治疗床中心处,改变加速器机臂的角度,从不同角度照射并用剂量仪进行比对测量,计算出治疗床不同床板对放疗剂量的衰减因子.结果 西门子医用直线加速器治疗床中有机玻璃床头板对剂量的衰减在1.5-20.5%,有机玻璃床体板对剂量的衰减在1.9～38.6%,有机玻璃网状窗体板对剂量的衰减在0.18-12.3%.结论 放射治疗时正后野180°左右时应选用网状板或有机玻璃床头板,在后侧斜野110°～130°和230°～250°区间最好用床尾板,并对相应剂量做出修正与补偿,而治疗床的主支撑架及金属边柜对剂量的衰减高达12.3～38.6%,而床头延伸板对剂量的衰减在1.1～5.5%之间,因此头部的肿瘤应选此延伸板治疗.因此在治疗计划设计与实施过程中应避免射线束直接穿过主支撑架与金属边框.     

探讨瓦里安加速器治疗床对放射治疗剂量的影响

目的探讨加速器治疗床在临床放射治疗中的安全性。方法将固体水模置于治疗床的中心处,改变机臂角度,从不同角度让不同能量的高能x射线穿透治疗床的各种床板,通过对比测量,计算出不同治疗床板对X射线的穿透因子。结果瓦里安加速器治疗床中的网状板对6MVX射线的穿透因子在0．981～0．997,对15MVX射线的穿透因子在0．990-0．999;延长板对6MVX射线的穿透因子在0．854～0．987,对15MVX射线的穿透因子在0．899～0．996。结论放射治疗对后野时应选用网状板,因为整个后野范围的x射线穿透因子平均在0．981～0．999,而延长板主要起延长支撑作用,而此板的X射线穿透因子最小达0．854。在同一角度下,相同床板对6MVX射线穿透因子要小于15MVX射线的,而且在相同能量x射线下,穿透因子随床板厚度的增加而减小。     

全身集成定位架对放疗靶区吸收剂量的影响

目的:研究YC-TQ-Ⅱ型全身集成定位架对放疗靶区吸收剂量的影响。 方法:将尺寸为30 cm×30 cm×15 cm的固体水模体固定在全身集成定位架体部中心轴上进行CT扫描后,将CT图像导入XiO TPS并勾画出固体水模体、靶区及全身集成定位架结构,之后以电离室为中心,机架角度从0°开始每隔一定角度添加一个10 cm×10 cm、100 MU不同能量射线的照射野。考虑到高密度材料的大小对机架角度的影响,在以下机架角度范围内每隔1°测一个值（61°~79°、101°~119°、241°~259°、281°~299°）;在其他机架角度范围内每隔10°测一个值（0°~60°、80°~100°、120°~240°、260°~280°、300°~350°）。根据对称性计算出高能X射线穿过全身集成定位架的衰减率,随后在医用直线加速器上用UNDOSE剂量仪进行同等条件下的测量来验证XiO TPS计算的准确性,最后在XiO TPS上对比有无全身集成定位架的三维适形放疗计划靶区吸收剂量变化情况。 结果:全身集成定位架对高能X射线的最大衰减率为:13.0%（6 MV）、11.4%（15 MV）,并且XiO TPS计算值与实际测量值符合得很好,最大偏差0.6%（15 MV）;添加全身集成定位架后靶区的D95%由6 000 cGy变化为5 304 cGy（6 MV）、5 484 cGy（15 MV）;放疗计划靶区的均匀性指数分别由0.091（6 MV）、0.104（15 MV）变化为0.195（6 MV）、0.175（15 MV）;靠近体架端靶区的6 000 cGy、5 500 cGy等剂量线明显上移,且6 MV比15 MV严重。 结论:YC-TQ-Ⅱ型全身集成定位架中的高密度材料可显著降低放疗靶区的吸收剂量,需要考虑其对高能X射线的衰减率并加以修正。     

高能X射线肿瘤照射靶区的生物学位置的实验模拟研究

目的:研究50MV高能X射线照射患者时光核反应产生的正电子发射核<'11>C、<'15>O在PET的显象技术及信息,探讨用该信息定量研究照射的肿瘤生物靶区准确度和剂量分布情况.方法:50 MV的X射线照射圆柱体模后快速置于PET上扫描显像和数据处理,确定射野轨迹和照射区大小并与物理射野大小比较,确定<'11>C活度分布...     

有无均整器模式下臂架与准直器不同角度条件下的剂量学比较

目的:探讨臂架或准直器角度的改变对均整（FF）与非均整（FFF）两种模式的射线剂量的影响。方法:选用Versa HD直线加速器配备的6 MV/10 MV光子束FF/FFF模式4档能量在设定好九点位置的10 cm×10 cm标准射野内进行实验。首先,借助IMF等中心夹具将Mapcheck2固定于治疗机机头,并用Mapcheck2测量相同臂架与准直器角度条件下4种光子束输出的平面剂量值;其次,用Mapcheck2测量在相同臂架角度、不同准直器角度与相同准直器角度、不同臂架角度两种条件下4种光子束的中心轴剂量值;最后,固定准直器为0°,设立两组臂架对穿射野（0°与180°,90°与270°）。拆除Mapcheck2,采用固体水和FC65-G电离室建立一个测量模体来测量4种光子束在两组等中心对穿野的剂量。运用SPSS统计软件对该实验收集到的数据进行对比分析。结果:在相同臂架与准直器角度条件下,4种光子束辐照9个点的平面剂量之间均存在明显统计学差异（P6 MV FF =0.020, P6 MV FFF=0.017, P10 MV FF =0.030, P10 MV FFF=0.016）;而不同臂架角度或不同准直器角度条件下,4种能量光子束的中心轴点剂量值均无统计学差异。在0°与180°的对穿野,4种能量光子束的输出剂量存在统计学差异（P6 MV FF =0.001, P6 MV FFF=0.002, P10 MV FF =0.003, P10 MV FFF=0.001）,而在90°与270°的对穿野无统计学差异。结论:Versa HD直线加速器拥有优良的机械等中心性能。在实际工作时,臂架和准直器的旋转,均不影响光子束的中心轴剂量的准确输出。在FF模式下,射线能量越高,受治疗床影响越小;FFF模式射线由于射线质软,能量越高,更易受到治疗床的衰减作用,在实际中应引起重视。     

Diamond detector versus silicon diode and ion chamber in photon beams of different energy and field size

The aim of this work was to test the suitability of a PTW diamond detector for nonreference condition dosimetry in photon beams of different energy (6 and 25 MV) and field size (from 2.6 cm x 2.6 cm to 10 cm x 10 cm). Diamond behavior was compared to that of a Scanditronix p-type silicon diode and a Scanditronix RK ionization chamber. Measurements included output factors (OF). percentage depth doses (PDD) and dose profiles. OFs measured with diamond detector agreed within 1% with those measured with diode and RK chamber. Only at 25 MV, for the smallest field size, RK chamber underestimated OFs due to averaging effects in a pointed shaped beam profile. Agreement was found between PDDs measured with diamond detector and RK chamber for both 6 MV and 25 MV photons and down to 5 cm x 5 cm field size. For the 2.6 cm x 2.6 cm field size, at 25 MV, RK chamber underestimated doses at shallow depth and the difference progressively went to zero in the distal region. PDD curves measured with silicon diode and diamond detector agreed well for the 25 MV beam at all the field sizes. Conversely, the nontissue equivalence of silicon led, for the 6 MV beam, to a slight overestimation of the diode doses in the distal region, at all the field sizes. Penumbra and field width measurements gave values in agreement for all the detectors but with a systematic overestimate by RK measurements. The results obtained confirm that ion chamber is not a suitable detector when high spatial resolution is required. On the other hand, the small differences in the studied parameters, between diamond and silicon systems, do not lead to a significant advantage in the use of diamond detector for routine clinical dosimetry.     

On-line quality assurance of rotational radiotherapy treatment delivery by means of a 2D ion chamber array and the Octavius phantom

For routine pretreatment verification of innovative treatment techniques such as (intensity modulated) dynamic arc therapy and helical TomoTherapy, an on-line and reliable method would be highly desirable. The present solution proposed by TomoTherapy, Inc. (Madison, WI) relies on film dosimetry in combination with up to two simultaneous ion chamber point dose measurements. A new method is proposed using a 2D ion chamber array (Seven29, PTW, Freiburg, Germany) inserted in a dedicated octagonal phantom, called Octavius. The octagonal shape allows easy positioning for measurements in multiple planes. The directional dependence of the response of the detector was primarily investigated on a dual energy (6 and 18 MV) Clinac 21EX (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA) as no fixed angle incidences can be calculated in the Hi-Art TPS of TomoTherapy. The array was irradiated from different gantry angles and with different arc deliveries, and the dose distributions at the level of the detector were calculated with the AAA (Analytical Anisotropic Algorithm) photon dose calculation algorithm implemented in Eclipse (Varian). For validation on the 6 MV TomoTherapy unit, rotational treatments were generated, and dose distributions were calculated with the Hi-Art TPS. Multiple cylindrical ion chamber measurements were used to cross-check the dose calculation and dose delivery in Octavius in the absence of the 2D array. To compensate for the directional dependence of the 2D array, additional prototypes of Octavius were manufactured with built-in cylindrically symmetric compensation cavities. When using the Octavius phantom with a 2 cm compensation cavity, measurements with an accuracy comparable to that of single ion chambers can be achieved. The complete Octavius solution for quality assurance of rotational treatments consists of: The 2D array, two octagonal phantoms (with and without compensation layer), an insert for nine cylindrical ion chambers, and a set of inserts of various tissue equivalent materials of different densities. The combination of the 2D array with the Octavius phantom proved to be a fast and reliable method for pretreatment verification of rotational treatments. Quality control of TomoTherapy patients was reduced to a total of approximately 25 min per patient.     

Ionization chamber volume averaging effects in dynamic intensity modulated radiation therapy beams

The commercial cylindrical ionization chamber ionization integration accuracy of dynamically moving fields was evaluated. The ionization chambers were exposed to long (14 cm), narrow (0.6, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 cm) 6 MV and 18 MV fields. Rather than rely on the linear accelerator to reproducibly scan across the chamber, the chambers were scanned beneath fixed portals. A water-equivalent phantom was constructed with cavities that matched the chambers and placed on a computer-controlled one-dimensional table. Computer-controlled electrometers were utilized in continuous charge integrate mode, with 10 samples of the charge, along with time stamps, acquired for each chamber location. A reference chamber was placed just beneath the linear accelerator jaws to adjust for variations in linear accelerator dose rate. The scan spatial resolution was selected to adequately sample regions of steep dose gradient and second spatial derivative (curvature). A fixed measurement in a 10 x 10 cm2 field was used to normalize the profiles to absolute chamber response. Three ionization chambers were tested, a microchamber (0.009 cm3), a Farmer chamber (0.6 cm3) and a waterproof scanning chamber (0.125 cm3). The larger chambers exhibited severe under-response at the small field's centers, but all of the chambers, independent of orientation, accurately integrated the ionization across the scanned portal. This indicates that the tested ionization chambers provide accurate integrated charges in regions of homogeneous dose regions. Partial integration (less than the field width plus the chamber length plus 2 cm), yielded integration errors of greater than 1% and 2% for 6 MV and 18 MV, respectively, with errors for the Farmer chamber of greater than 10% even for the 4 cm wide field.     

The value of the PinPoint ion chamber for characterization of small field segments used in intensity-modulated radiotherapy

Volume averaging and lack of electronic equilibrium complicate accurate dosimetry of small photon fields. In this paper the performance of the PinPoint ion chamber for characterizing small fields used in intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) was investigated and the results were compared with those obtained using the Markus ion chamber and a diamond detector. Sharp beam penumbras were measured for a 5 x 5 cm field defined using a cerrobend block mounted on the accelerator head. In addition, output factors were measured for a 6 MV photon beam and a variety of small rectangular fields collimated widthwise using the multileaf collimator (MLC) in combination with the back-up jaws. From this study, a reference field of 5 x 5 cm and a measuring depth of 5 cm are recommended. This is related to the over-response of the PinPoint chamber to low-energy Compton scattered photons, an effect that was investigated rigorously and turned out to limit the scope of this ionization chamber. However, taking into account some limitations, the PinPoint chamber is an excellent detector for output measurements in small fields down to 2 cm. In profile measurements the chamber causes a broadening of the measured penumbras but its spatial resolution is superior to that of the Markus chamber.     

基于非晶硅电子射野影像装置的剂量响应研究

目的：临床条件下研究探讨非晶硅电子射野影像装置（a-Si EPID）的剂量响应特性。方法 ：本实验在Elekta Precise直线加速器上X射线能量分别为6 MV和10 MV,采用PTW电离室、等效固体水和不同厚度铜板条件下实施测量。首先,通过EPID信号和模体中电离室的测量比较,确定出EPID剂量响应的建成厚度。其次,临床条件下利用模体的不同厚度测量分析有关剂量、每脉冲剂量和脉冲重复频率（PRF）函数的EPID信号响应情况。结果：在不增加建成材料、10 cm～60cm空气间隙条件下EPID显示了最大11.6%的过响应信号变化。临床上额外将3 mm铜建成区置于EPID上方,空气间隙大于40 cm条件下EPID响应变化将会降至1%以内。在测量范围内随MU数、PRF和每脉冲剂量变化的EPID信号响应是非线性的,最大信号变化接近于3%。因假峰和图像滞后效应等影响,短时间照射EPID会明显地产生出低剂量响应。结论：采用合适的建成层和实施对每脉冲剂量、PRF等校正,非晶硅EPID剂量响应变化可控制在1%以内,从而建立起较为理想的剂量响应曲线。     

Backscatter towards the monitor ion chamber in high-energy photon and electron beams: charge integration versus Monte Carlo simulation

In some linear accelerators, the charge collected by the monitor ion chamber is partly caused by backscattered particles from accelerator components downstream from the chamber. This influences the output of the accelerator and also has to be taken into account when output factors are derived from Monte Carlo simulations. In this work, the contribution of backscattered particles to the monitor ion chamber response of a Varian 2100C linac was determined for photon beams (6, 10 MV) and for electron beams (6, 12, 20 MeV). The experimental procedure consisted of charge integration from the target in a photon beam or from the monitor ion chamber in electron beams. The Monte Carlo code EGS4/BEAM was used to study the contribution of backscattered particles to the dose deposited in the monitor ion chamber. Both measurements and simulations showed a linear increase in backscatter fraction with decreasing field size for photon and electron beams. For 6 MV and 10 MV photon beams, a 2-3% increase in backscatter was obtained for a 0.5 x 0.5 cm2 field compared to a 40 x 40 cm2 field. The results for the 6 MV beam were slightly higher than for the 10 MV beam. For electron beams (6, 12, 20 MeV), an increase of similar magnitude was obtained from measurements and simulations for 6 MeV electrons. For higher energy electron beams a smaller increase in backscatter fraction was found. The problem is of less importance for electron beams since large variations of field size for a single electron energy usually do not occur.     

Characterization of the ADII-33 diamond detector

Dosimetry characteristics of the ADII-33 diamond detector were investigated. Sensitivity, stability, bias voltage, hardening, dose rate, energy dependence, and spatial resolution were examined. Current generated in the detector was found to be proportional to the bias voltage applied to the detector with stability degrading as a function of the bias voltage. The average current increased with increasing bias voltage. The statistical fluctuation in current was less than 0.3% regardless of the applied bias voltage. The optimal bias voltage, at which the current uncertainty is negligible, was found to be 125+/-25 V. The detector was hardened up to 85 kGy without significant degradation in output signal. A sub-linearity in the current as a function of dose rate was observed when the dose rate varied from 600.0 to 11.1 cGy/min. A fitting parameter of delta=0.978 was observed in the power relationship of IinfinityDdelta. When comparing the diamond detector readings to corrected ion chamber readings over a wide energy range of electron beams, differences of only 0.2% were observed suggesting no energy dependence for electron beam. PDD curves for a 10 x 10 cm2 field for 6 and 20 MV photon beams measured with the diamond detector and the farmer type ion chamber were also compared and they closely agreed up to a depth of 14 cm. Beyond a depth of 14 cm, diamond detector starts to overestimate the PDD curve reaching difference of 1.90% and 1.0% at 18 cm depth for 6 and 20 MV, respectively, to those values measured with the ion chamber. The diamond detector presents slightly better spatial resolution than the Exradin A16 microchamber. We conclude that at the optimal bias voltage, this new diamond detector is stable and the uncertainties in the current will not affect its suitability for clinical use. If compared against a calibrated ion chamber to correct any energy and dose rate dependence and considering any radiation damage effect, this diamond detector can be used to measure absolute and relative dose.     

Measurement of the collection efficiency of a large volume spherical ionization chamber in megavoltage therapy beams.

The collection efficiency of a 5.7 cm diameter spherical ionization chamber has been measured in 4 MV and 10 MV x-ray beams at various distances from the source. This chamber was found to have a substantial inefficiency due to its large volume and the high dose rate and pulsed nature of the therapy beams. It was also found that the efficiency depended on the dose rate of the machine because the inter-pulse separation time of the linac is significantly less than the ion transit-time for this chamber. Thus, ionization from more than one beam pulse is collected by the chamber at the same time. The efficiency was determined using three techniques (i) the two-voltage technique, (ii) the voltage extrapolation technique and (iii) a method originally devised for determining the collection efficiency of large volume ionization chambers in diagnostic radiology. The results show that methods (ii) and (iii) agree well, but that the two-voltage technique predicts a much lower efficiency. At about 4 m from the source, the collection efficiency for this chamber varied between 98% and 97% for dose rates between 50 and 250 cGy/min for 4 MV and between 97% and 90% for dose rates between 100 and 600 cGy/min for 10 MV. At isocenter, the comparable figures were 78% and 56% respectively for 4 MV and 65% and 38% respectively for 10 MV.     

Dosimetry validation of treatment room shielding design

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) can lead to an increase in leakage radiation. The total number of monitor units (MUs) for IMRT is typically 2-5 times that for conventional treatments [the ratio of the two is used to derive the effective modulation scaling factor (MSFeff)]. Shielding calculations for IMRT can be done by applying the MSFeff to measured exposures under conservative conditions (standard beam setup 40 cm x 40 cm field, 45 degrees collimator angle) to account for the increased leakage. In this work, we verified this approach for two existing vaults housing a Siemens Primart 6 MV linac and a Varian 21Ex 10 MV linac. We measured the cumulative exposures at various locations around the vaults for typical IMRT cases and for the standard beam setup using the same MUs. For the standard beam setup, the IMRT gantry angles and eight equally spaced angles were used. Estimations of weekly exposures for IMRT were carried out using exposure rates measured under standard beam setup and the MSFeff averaged over 20 treatment cases. The accumulated exposures under realistic IMRT conditions were 30%-50% lower than the estimated values using equally spaced gantry angles except for two locations where the real IMRT leakage was higher than the estimated value by approximately 10%. Measurements using the same gantry angles yielded similar results. Our results indicate that it is adequate to use the MSFeff and previously measured exposures to estimate the leakage increase due to IMRT for an existing vault. Different approaches should be followed when considering primary or secondary barriers since the standard beam setup is overestimating the exposures behind primary barriers compared to IMRT. In such cases, a 10 cm x 10 cm field can be used for more accurate shielding evaluation.