Does thioredoxin-1 prevent mitochondria- and endoplasmic reticulum-mediated neurotoxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine?

We show that 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP(+)), an active metabolite of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6- tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), induces cytotoxicity via endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- and mitochondria-mediated pathways, and thioredoxin-1 (TRX-1), a redox-active protein, prevents MPTP-induced neurotoxicity. TRX-1 overexpression suppressed reactive oxygen species and the ATP decline caused by MPP(+) in HepG2 cells. MPP(+) activated caspase-12 in PC12 cells and induced cytotoxicity in HeLa-rho(0) cells lacking mitochondrial DNA, as well as in the parental HeLa-S3 cells. TRX-1-transgenic mice demonstrated significant resistance to caspase-12 activation and the apoptotic decrease of dopaminergic neurons after MPTP administration, compared with wild-type C57BL/6 mice.     

Does ORP150/HSP12A protect dopaminergic neurons against MPTP/MPP(+)-induced neurotoxicity?

MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) and its metabolite 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) are drugs that are widely used in experimental Parkinson disease (PD) models. What is the significance of ORP150/HSP12A, a molecular chaperone in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in the nigrostriatal system? Dopaminergic neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) were examined. Our observations led to the hypothesis that ORP150 protects against MPTP/MPP(+)-induced neurotoxicity, and indicate the importance of the ER environment in maintaining the nigrostriatal pathways.     

N-methylated beta-carbolines protect PC12 cells from cytotoxic effect of MPP+ by attenuation of mitochondrial membrane permeability change

Opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore has been recognized to be involved in cell death. The present study investigated the effect of beta-carbolines (harmaline and harmalol) on the MPP(+)-induced change in the mitochondrial membrane permeability and cell death in differentiated PC12 cells. beta-Carbolines and antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate or rutin) prevented the loss of cell viability in PC12 cells treated with 250 microM MPP(+), while the effects of N-acetylcysteine and dithiothreitol were not observed. beta-Carbolines reduced the condensation and fragmentation of nuclei caused by MPP(+) in PC12 cells. beta-Carbolines alone did not exhibit a significant cytotoxic effect on PC12 cells. beta-Carbolines (50 microM) inhibited the decrease in mitochondrial transmembrane potential, cytochrome c release, activation of caspase-3, formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and depletion of GSH caused by MPP(+) in PC12 cells. beta-Carbolines reduced the hydrogen peroxide- or SIN-1-induced cell death in PC12 cells. The results suggest that beta-carbolines may attenuate the MPP(+)-induced viability loss in PC12 cells by inhibition of change in the mitochondrial membrane permeability and by antioxidant effect.     

Implication of the c-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase pathway in the neuroprotective effect of puerarin against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)-induced apoptosis in PC-12 cells

Apoptosis is a widely accepted component of the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), a debilitating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of puerarin and possible mechanisms by which puerarin acts against MPP(+)-induced toxicity in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. PC12 cells exposed to MPP(+) (500 μM) significantly decreased the viability of PC12 cells when examined by MTT assay, DNA ELISA assay, and Annexin V assays, which was prevented by puerarin in a dose-dependent manner. PC12 cells exposed to MPP(+) (500 μM) elicited phosphorylation of MKK7, c-Jun-NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK), and c-Jun which followed by the increase in cytochrome c levels, and which was prevented by puerarin. Moreover, puerarin inhibited the activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 in MPP(+)-exposed PC12 cells. Whereas, the neuroprotective effect of puerarin against MPP(+) insults can be blocked by SP600125 (inhibitor of JNK). Taken together, these results suggest that puerarin protected PC12 cells against MPP(+)-induced neurotoxicity through the inhibition of the JNK signaling pathways. Therefore, puerarin has the possible beneficial effects in PD by attenuating MPP(+)-induced toxicity.     

Protective effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs against MPP(+)-induced oxidative stress in PC12 cells

Recent studies have suggested that some atypical antipsychotic drugs may have protective properties against oxidative stress. To confirm these findings, we investigated the protective effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs such as olanzapine, aripiprazole, and ziprasidone on oxidative stress induced by the N-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) ion in PC12 cells. Haloperidol, a typical antipsychotic drug, was used for comparison. We determined the antioxidant effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs using a number of measures, including cell viability, the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and Bax levels. MPP(+) treatment induced significant loss of cell viability, the formation of ROS, reduction of SOD activity, and up-regulation of Bax expression. However, olanzapine, aripiprazole and ziprasidone reversed these effects caused by MPP(+) treatment, but ziprasidone did not influence cell viability. In contrast, haloperidol did not affect all these effects. Moreover, haloperidol strongly increased the expression of Bax under MPP(+)-free conditions. Olanzapine, aripiprazole, and ziprasidone, but not haloperidol, may exert antioxidant effects through modulating ROS levels, SOD activity, and Bax expression to provide protective effects against MPP(+)-induced oxidative stress in PC12 cells. These results suggest that some atypical antipsychotic drugs have a useful therapeutic effect by reducing oxidative stress in schizophrenic patients.     

MPP+对PC12细胞内源性H2S生成的影响

目的： 观察1-甲基4-苯基吡啶离子 (MPP+)对PC12细胞内源性硫化氢（H2S）生成的影响,以探讨MPP+损伤PC12细胞的新机制。方法: RT-PCR方法检测PC12细胞胱硫醚-β-合酶（CBS）mRNA 的表达;亚甲基蓝分光光度计法检测PC12细胞内源性H2S的含量及PC12细胞CBS活性;台盼蓝拒染色法观察PC12细胞的存活率。结果：MPP+ 可以抑制PC12细胞CBS的表达及其活性,减少内源性H2S的生成;MPP+可以明显地降低PC12细胞的存活率;H2S的供体硫氢化钠（NaHS）对MPP+诱导的PC12细胞损伤具有显著的拮抗作用。结论: MPP+能抑制CBS的表达和活性,减少内源性H2S生成,这可能与其损伤PC12细胞的机制有关。     

微小RNA-486靶向TRIM10抑制帕金森病细胞模型损伤

目的 探讨微小RNA（miR）-486对1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子(MPP+)诱导的体外帕金森病（PD）PC12细胞模型凋亡的影响和机制。 方法 实验分成对照（control）组、PD组（MPP+诱导PC12细胞）、miR-NC组［MPP+诱导PC12细胞转染模拟（mimics）对照（mimics control）］、miR-486组（MPP+诱导PC12细胞转染miR-486 mimics）、miR-486+载体（vector）组（共转染miR-486 mimics和pcDNA3.1）、miR-486+TRIM10组（共转染miR-486 mimics和pcDNA3.1-TRIM10）,每组n=9。CCK-8法分析细胞增殖变化,流式细胞术分析细胞凋亡水平变化,Western blotting分析Bax和Bcl-2蛋白表达变化,硫代巴比妥酸法检测细胞中丙二醛（MDA）含量,荧光探针法检测细胞中活性氧簇（ROS）水平,二硝基苯肼分析培养液上清中乳酸脱氢酶（LDH）水平。用生物信息学软件预测miR-486的靶基因,双荧光素酶报告基因实验检测miR-486、TRIM10靶向关系。 结果 与control组比较,PD组细胞存活率、Bcl-2蛋白表达降低,细胞凋亡率、Bax蛋白表达、MDA、ROS和LDH水平升高。与miR-NC组比,miR-486组细胞存活率、Bcl-2蛋白表达升高,细胞凋亡率、Bax蛋白表达、MDA、ROS和LDH水平降低。MiR-486靶向下调TRIM10表达。与miR-486+vector组比较,miR-486+TRIM10组细胞存活率、Bcl-2蛋白水平降低,细胞凋亡率、Bax蛋白水平、MDA、ROS和LDH水平升高。 结论 上调miR-486可通过靶向抑制TRIM10减少MPP+诱导的体外帕金森病PC12细胞模型的凋亡。     

Geranylgeranylacetone, a noninvasive heat shock protein inducer, induces protein kinase C and leads to neuroprotection against cerebral infarction in rats

Previous studies demonstrated the cytoprotective effect of geranylgeranylacetone (GGA), a heat shock protein (HSP) inducer, against ischemic insult. Protein kinase C (PKC) is thought to be an important factor that mediates the expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) in vitro. However, the signaling pathways in the brain in vivo after oral GGA administration remain unclear. We measured and compared infarction volumes to investigate the effect of GGA on cerebral infarction induced by permanent middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion in rats. To clarify the relationship between PKC induction and HSP70 expression, we determined the amounts of HSP70 and PKC proteins after GGA administration by immunoblotting. We evaluated the effects of pretreatment with chelerythrine (CHE), a specific PKC inhibitor, on expressions of PKC and HSP70 proteins with immunoblotting. Neuroprotective effects of GGA (pretreatment with a single oral GGA dose (800 mg/kg) 48 h before ischemia) were prevented by CHE pretreatment, which indicates that PKC may mediate the GGA-dependent protection. Oral GGA-induced HSP70 expression induced PKC delta, and GGA pretreatment enhanced ischemia-induced HSP70, both of which were prevented by CHE pretreatment. These results suggest that a single oral dose of GGA induces PKC delta and promotes HSP70 expression in the brain and that GGA plays an important role in neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia.     

米诺环素抑制MPP+诱导的PC12细胞凋亡和线粒体功能损伤

目的: 探讨米诺环素(minocycline)对1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子(MPP⁺)诱导的PC12细胞凋亡和线粒体功能损伤的保护作用。方法: 将MPP⁺加入体外培养的的 PC12 细胞中, 建立多巴胺能神经元凋亡模型, 实验过程中用minocycline进行预处理,四甲基偶氮唑盐法(MTT法)检测细胞存活率,Hoechst染色检测细胞凋亡,DCFH-DA检测ROS聚集,JC-1检测细胞线粒体膜电位变化。结果: 0.5 mmol/L MPP⁺处理PC12细胞24 h,能明显抑制细胞生长(抑制率80.8%),诱导细胞发生凋亡(凋亡率5.22%),同时ROS浓度提高230.0%,线粒体膜去极化(绿/红荧光强度比为11.95)。而加入10 μmol/L minocycline预处理30 min可明显升高MPP⁺处理的 PC12 细胞活性,细胞凋亡率明显降低(P<0.01),ROS浓度明显下降,绿/红荧光强度比也明显降低(P<0.01)。结论: Minocycline抑制MPP⁺诱导的PC12细胞凋亡部分通过对抗其线粒体功能而发挥作用。     

The role of heat shock protein 70 induced by geranylgeranylacetone in carbon tetrachloride-exposed adult rat testes

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) induces testicular damage, through formation of free-radical metabolites. Molecular chaperone heat shock protein of 70 kDa (HSP 70) protects cells from various stresses. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of induction of HSP70 using geranylgeranylacetone (GGA) on testicular damage caused by CCl₄. Rats were divided into group I (control group), Group II (CCl₄ group) received CCl₄ s.c. for 4 weeks, group III received CCl₄ s.c. for 4 weeks simultaneously with daily single oral dose of GGA (GGA – treated CCl₄ group). Serum testosterone, testicular lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), testicular malondialdehyde (MDA), total nitrite and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) were measured. Evaluation of histopathological changes and immunohistochemical HSP70 expression for testicular biopsies were performed. Group II showed lower values of gonado-somatic index, serum testosterone, testicular LDH, ALP, T-AOC and greater values of testicular MDA and total nitrite than in control. Testicular morphology showed widening of seminiferous lumen, less spermatogenesis, vacuolization of germinative epithelium. Group III had higher values of gonado-somatic index, serum testosterone, testicular LDH, ALP, T-AOC with less testicular MDA and total nitrite than in group II. They have less damage and restored the altered testicular morphology. Immunohistochemical HSP70 expression was increased in the testicular spermatogenic and sertoli cells in group II that was significantly accentuated in group III. These findings suggest that GGA-induced activation of HSP 70 significantly alleviate CCl₄ inflicting testicular damage by HSP 70 mediated cytoprotection and antioxidant effects.     

利福平抑制α-synuclein的聚集及对MPP＋诱导细胞损伤的拮抗作用

目的： 探讨利福平对帕金森病致病蛋白α-突触共核蛋白（α-synuclein）聚集的影响，以及对1-甲基-4-苯基-吡啶离子(MPP+)诱导的细胞损伤的拮抗作用。 方法： 选用大鼠嗜铬细胞瘤株PC12细胞，利用MPP+诱导建立帕金森病细胞模型，利福平进行干预；采用MTT法检测细胞活性、Western blotting法检测α-synuclein表达及聚集，流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡。 结果： 1 mmol/L MPP+组细胞活性明显低于对照组，细胞凋亡率和α-synuclein表达及聚集高于对照组；预先经过100、200和300 μmol/L各浓度利福平处理后，MPP++利福平组细胞活性明显高于1 mmol/L MPP+组，而细胞凋亡率和α-synuclein表达及聚集均低于1 mmol/L MPP+组，并具有明显的剂量-效应关系。 结论： 利福平能够抑制α-synuclein的表达及聚集，并对MPP+诱导的PC12细胞损伤具有拮抗作用。     

Salvianic acid A protects human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells against MPP+-induced cytotoxicity

1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP(+)), an inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I, has been widely used as a neurotoxin because it elicits a severe Parkinson's disease-like syndrome with elevation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and apoptotic death. Salvianic acid A (SA), isolated from the Chinese herbal medicine Salvia miltiorrhiza, is capable of protecting diverse kinds of cells from damage caused by a variety of toxic stimuli. In the present study, we investigated the protective effects of SA on MPP(+)-induced cytotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, as well as the underlying mechanism. Treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with MPP(+) caused the loss of cell viability, and condensation and fragmentation of nuclei, which was associated with the elevation of ROS level, the increase in Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and the activation of caspase-3. MPP(+) induced mitochondria dysfunction characterized by mitochondrial membrane potential loss and cytochrome c release. These phenotypes induced by MPP(+) were reversed by SA. Our results suggested that the protective effects of SA on MPP(+)-induced cytotoxicity may be ascribed to its antioxidative properties and anti-apoptotic activity via regulating the expression of Bcl-2 and Bax. These data indicated that SA might provide a useful therapeutic strategy for the treatment of progressive neurodegenerative disease such as Parkinson's disease.     

Receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) deficiency protects against MPTP toxicity

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder of unknown pathogenesis characterized by the loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Oxidative stress, microglial activation and inflammatory responses seem to contribute to the pathogenesis. The receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) is a multiligand receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell surface molecules. The formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), the first ligand of RAGE identified, requires a complex series of reactions including nonenzymatic glycation and free radical reactions involving superoxide-radicals and hydrogen peroxide. Binding of RAGE ligands results in activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB). We show that RAGE ablation protected nigral dopaminergic neurons against cell death induced by the neurotoxin MPTP that mimics most features of PD. In RAGE-deficient mice the translocation of the NF-κB subunit p65 to the nucleus, in dopaminergic neurons and glial cells was inhibited suggesting that RAGE involves the activation of NF-κB. The mRNA level of S100, one of the ligands of RAGE, was increased after MPTP treatment. The dopaminergic neurons treated with MPP(+) and S100 protein showed increased levels of apoptotic cell death, which was attenuated in RAGE-deficient mice. Our results suggest that activation of RAGE contributes to MPTP/MPP(+)-induced death of dopaminergic neurons that may be mediated by NF-κB activation.     

没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯对1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子诱导的大鼠PC12细胞凋亡的作用

目的： 探讨没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)抑制1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子（MPP+）诱导大鼠PC12细胞凋亡及其抗氧化作用、调节胞浆钙离子稳态与其抑制细胞凋亡作用之间的关系。方法: 培养大鼠肾上腺嗜铬细胞瘤细胞株PC12细胞,给予MPP+诱导细胞凋亡。EGCG（10、50及100 μmol·L-1）预处理0.5 h,再加入MPP+使其终浓度为900 μmol·L-1处理24 h后,MTT法检测细胞存活率,Annexin V-PI双染流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡,荧光酶标仪测定细胞内活性氧,激光共聚焦荧光显微镜通过检测细胞内钙的荧光强度、检测细胞胞浆［Ca2+］i的变化,透射电镜观察凋亡细胞线粒体结构形态变化,并测定细胞内超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）和丙二醛（MDA）的含量。结果: MPP+呈剂量依赖性损伤PC12细胞,诱导细胞凋亡发生率达到31.0％。与模型组比较,EGCG处理后,明显提高细胞活力,降低凋亡细胞率,同时增强SOD活性、减少MDA和ROS的含量,降低胞浆［Ca2+］i浓度,减轻MPP+诱致的细胞线粒体改变。结论: EGCG具有抑制MPP+诱导的PC12细胞凋亡的作用,其作用机制可能与其提高细胞抗氧化能力和减少胞浆［Ca2+］i有关。     

Induced and constitutive heat shock protein expression in the olfactory system--a review, new findings, and some perspectives

Heat shock, or stress, proteins (HSPs) are cellular proteins induced in response to conditions that cause protein denaturation, and their induction is essential for survival of such conditions. In the olfactory system we have found intense HSP expression occurs during normal processing of environmental odorants/inhalants as well as following hyperthermia and drug exposure. The HSPs involved include ubiquitin, HSP70, HSC70, and HSP25. Responses are both cell type- and stress-specific, occurring primarily in olfactory supporting cells and to some extent in Bowman’s gland acinar cells. Responses to these stresses are not seen in olfactory sensory neurons. This article reviews those studies and the significance of their findings. It also discusses a distinct subpopulation of rat olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), the 2A4(+)OSNs, found to be constitutively reactive with HSP70, the predominantly stress-inducible isoform of the 70 kD HSP family. Their high HSP70 expression appears to confer on the 2A4(+)OSNs an enhanced ability to survive damage-induced OSN turnover. New findings are also presented on HSP25-specific changes following olfactory bulbectomy. All data are discussed in the context of the overall olfactory and bioprotective functions of the olfactory mucosa.     

Protection by puerarin against MPP+-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells mediated by inhibiting mitochondrial dysfunction and caspase-3-like activation

Puerarin, a main isoflavone glycoside distributed in Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, showed inhibitory activity on H2O2-induced PC12 cells damage in our previous work. However, there is insufficient evidence in protective mechanism of puerarin, especially that relating to the mitochondrial function. In this study, when cells were pretreated with puerarin prior to 0.4 mM MPP+, protective roles were accompanied by a reduction of cell viability loss, morphological changes of apoptosis and apoptotic rate. To explore the protective mechanism of puerarin in MPP+-induced PC12 cells, mitochondrial function and caspase-3-like activity were measured. The results indicated that puerarin inhibited the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c to cytosol and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potentials. In addition, puerarin also reduced MPP+-induced caspase-3-like activation. Taken together, the above results suggest that pretreatment of PC12 cells with puerarin could block MPP+-mediated apoptosis by mitochondria-dependent caspase cascade.     

HSP70 from Trypanosoma cruzi is endowed with specific cell proliferation potential leading to apoptosis

The Trypanosoma cruzi HSP70 recombinant protein has the capacity to stimulate splenocytes or lymph node cells from naive mice in a non-haplotype-restricted way. The proliferative response is abolished by proteinase K digestion and by specific anti-HSP70 antibodies. The induced stimulation index was maximal after 24 h of incubation with the protein. This stimulation leads to cell death in a Fas-Fas ligand-independent way. The phenotype of the expanded cells was CD3(+) TCRalphass(+) CD4(+). HSP70-responsive cells express a broad range of cytokines including IFN-gamma, IL-2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. After 48 h of incubation with HSP70 there was a significant increase in relative intracellular levels of CD3 TCRalphass receptors. The expanded CD4(+) cell population expressed CD25; however, in contrast to concanavalin A-treated culture, delayed CD44 expression was observed.     

Endogenous signals released from necrotic cells augment inflammatory responses to bacterial endotoxin

Stressed cells undergoing necrosis release molecules that acts as endogenous danger signals to alert and activate innate immune cells. Both HMGB1 and HSP70 are induced in activated monocytes/macrophages and also are released from stressed or injured cells. We investigated whether HMGB1 and HSP70 released from necrotic monocytes/macrophages, can act as danger signals to mediate proinflammatory cytokine responses to bacterial endotoxin or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We show that cell lysate, obtained from necrotic cells directly stimulates the proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine responses in human monocyte/macrophage cell line, THP-1, as revealed by the induction of TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression and protein production. In the presence of LPS, necrotic cell lysate induced a more robust increase in all three proteins. We found that HMGB1 and HSP70 were indeed present in the necrotic cell lysate and were responsible for the significant induction of the proinflammatory cytokine expression, as neutralization with antibodies against both proteins blocked the increase in the cytokine production seen after incubating LPS-stimulated cells with the necrotic cell lysate. We also found that the newly identified triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM-1) was involved in mediating the HMGB1- and HSP70-induced cytokine production. Blocking TREM-1 on THP-1 cells with a recombinant chimera prevented the increase in cytokine production, while simultaneous blocking of TLR4 and TREM-1 completely abolished the proinflammatory response, suggesting that TREM-1 synergizes with TLR4 to mediate the effects of such signals from necrotic cells. In addition, blocking HMGB1 or HSP70 simultaneously with TREM-1 did not decrease the cytokine level further, confirming the involvement of TREM-1 in mediating the effect of HMGB1 and HSP70. Although the interaction of HMGB1 and HSP70 with TREM-1 induced I kappa B alpha and p38 expression, both of which are required for the inflammatory cytokine expression, blockade of TREM-1 did not affect I kappa B alpha expression but markedly reduced p38 activation, as revealed by Western blot analysis. Together, these results demonstrate that HMGB1 and HSP70 released from necrotic cells function as endogenous danger signals to augment the proinflammatory responses in monocytes/macrophage and that TREM-1 relays such signals to the cytokine expression cascade. This mechanism may contribute to the amplification and persistence of the inflammatory response to bacterial infection.