A cross-sectional survey of patients' beliefs about stress and their help-seeking behaviour

BACKGROUND: Stress has become an increasingly common presentation in general practice. This may relate to an increase in stress in people's lives or a change in the meaning of stress and its conceptualisation as a legitimate problem for the GP. AIM: To explore patients' beliefs about stress, their association with help-seeking behaviour, and to examine differences by ethnic group. DESIGN OF STUDY: Cross-sectional survey of general practice patients attending to see their GP. SETTING: An inner-city London practice. METHOD: Consecutive general practice patients completed a questionnaire, which involved rating a series of symptoms for the extent to which they were associated with stress and describing their help-seeking behaviour. In total, 548 patients completed the questionnaire. Most patients described themselves as black Caribbean (n = 163), black African (n = 48), or white British (n = 187). RESULTS: The symptoms most frequently associated with stress were sleeping problems, feeling depressed, feeling panicky, having high blood pressure and feeling anxious; feeling ashamed, experiencing indigestion, having diarrhoea, feeling hot or cold, and suffering from constipation were least commonly associated to stress. This model of stress did not vary by ethnic group. Ethnic group differences were found for the association between the model of stress and help-seeking behaviour. Although white British patients consistently reported that the more a symptom was seen as indicative of stress, the more likely they would be to visit the doctor for that symptom, this association was not found for either black Caribbean or black African patients. CONCLUSIONS: The belief that stress-related symptoms are a legitimate problem for the GP is not universal and varies according to ethnic group. Stress is used by different patients in different ways and offers a variable pathway to the doctor.     

The strategies used by general practitioners when providing information about medicines

Changes both inside and outside the consultation increase the chances that patients may gain information from sources other than their general practitioner (GP). Data from nine interviews and one focus group with British GPs were used to explore GPs' rationale for the information they provide when prescribing oral steroids and their perceptions of patients' expectations. GPs' communication strategies were associated with the type of relationship they sought to perpetuate with patients. Some GPs reported that decisions about the provision of information were based on their own judgements of what patients needed to know (paternalistic approach), while others reported attempts to take account of patients' existing knowledge and beliefs (mutualistic approach). All the GPs were aware of the availability of information about medical matters, and most believed that patients' expectations had increased. The communication strategies of some GPs may not be appropriate given the availability of medical information outside the consultation.     

Communicating fatigue in general practice and the role of gender

The aim of this study has been to obtain more insight into the health condition of fatigued patients, their expectations when visiting the general practitioner (GP), the way they communicate, and possible gender differences. Data consisted of 579 patient questionnaires and 440 video-observations of these patients and 31 GPs. Results showed that fatigue is a common health problem but seldom on the agenda in general practice. More women indicated symptoms of fatigue than men did. Fatigued patients' health was worse than that of non-fatigued patients, and they expected more biomedical and especially psychosocial communication. Furthermore, male fatigued patients expected more biomedical communication than fatigued female patients did. While the GPs accommodated their verbal behavior to fatigued patients by giving more psychosocial information and more counseling, they were not more affective towards the fatigued than towards the non-fatigued patients. Female GPs were more affective than their male colleagues, and they used gender-specific communication strategies to explore the patient's agenda. It seems necessary to use a gender-sensitive approach in communication research.     

What do patients want from doctors? Content analysis of written patient agendas for the consultation.

BACKGROUND: Although much has been written about what patients want when they contact their general practitioner (GP), there are no published data from large cohort studies of what patients expect. AIM: To describe the expectations of a large group of patients who consulted with their GPs. METHOD: A GP and a social sciences graduate carried out a content analysis of written agenda forms completed by 819 patients who consulted 46 randomly selected GPs. Inter- and intra-rater reliabilities were confirmed. RESULTS: A total of 756 (92%) agenda forms were returned. Inter-rater reliability was satisfactory (kappa > 0.6 for all but two main themes). Almost all patients had requests they wished to make of their doctor, 60% had their own ideas about what was wrong, and 38% had considered explanations about why they were unwell. Forty-two per cent and 24% of patients had consulted because they had reached the limit of their anxiety or tolerance respectively. Seven per cent, 4%, and 2% had comments, which were usually negative, to make about previous management, communication with doctors, or time in the consultation. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate that most patients come to the consultation with a particular agenda. Failure to address this agenda is likely to adversely affect the outcome of many consultations.     

Genetic counselling: the psychological impact of meeting patients'' expectations.

We know little about patients' expectations of genetic counselling, the extent to which these are met, and whether meeting expectations is associated with improved patient outcome. This study describes 131 consultations of patients referred to a regional genetics centre, and documents their expectations, the extent to which these are met, and the predictors and consequences of expectations being met. The outcomes assessed were state anxiety, concern about the problem for which the patient was referred, and satisfaction with information given. Patients came to genetic counselling expecting information (79%), explanation (63%), reassurance (50%), advice (50%), and help in making decisions (30%). The majority got what they were expecting: 74% had their expectation for information met, 56% had their expectation for explanation met, 60% had their expectation for reassurance met, 61% had their expectation for advice met, and 73% had their expectation for help with making decisions met. Patient expectations, and whether or not these were met, were not predicted by any of the patient or counsellor variables measured. When patients' expectations for reassurance and advice were met, patients were less concerned and their anxiety level was more reduced than when such expectations were not met. Meeting patients' expectations for information, explanation, or help with decision making were not associated with better outcomes. Explanations for these results and implications for the practice of genetic counselling are discussed.     

Parental separation, loss and psychosis in different ethnic groups: a case-control study

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have reported high rates of psychosis in the Black Caribbean and Black African populations in the UK. However, few studies have investigated the role of specific risk factors in different ethnic groups. We sought to investigate the relationship between long-term separation from, and death of, a parent before the age of 16 and risk of adult psychosis in different ethnic groups. METHOD: All patients with a first episode of psychosis who made contact with psychiatric services in defined catchment areas in London and Nottingham, UK and a series of community controls were included in the AESOP (Aetiology and Ethnicity in Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses) study. Data relating to clinical and social variables, including parental separation and loss, were collected from patients and controls. RESULTS: Separation from, and death of, a parent before the age of 16 were both strongly associated with a two- to threefold increased risk of psychosis. The strength of these associations were similar for White British and Black Caribbean (but not Black African) subjects. Separation from (but not death of) a parent was more common among Black Caribbean controls than White British controls. CONCLUSIONS: Early separation may have a greater impact in the Black Caribbean population, because it is more common, and may contribute to the excess of psychosis in this population.     

Evidence for onward transmission of HIV-1 non-B subtype strains in the United Kingdom

An increasing proportion of new HIV diagnoses in the United Kingdom and other European countries are attributable to non-B subtype infections, mainly among black Africans with infections heterosexually acquired in sub-Saharan Africa. We examined whether there was evidence for onward transmission of non-B subtypes within an ethnically diverse HIV-1-infected cohort in South London. Three hundred eighty-four HIV-1-infected patients attending Kings College Hospital were subtyped using an in-house enzyme-linked immunoassay and env sequencing. Epidemiologic data were obtained from medical chart review and the patients' physician and were used to establish the most likely source and country of infection. Overall, 344 patients (154 black African, 148 white UK-born, and 42 black Caribbean) had an identifiable subtype. The prevalence of non-B subtypes among the black African, white, and black Caribbean patients was 96.8%, 14.2%, and 31%, respectively. Most non-B subtype infections were identified in black Africans (149 of 183 cases) and were mainly acquired in sub-Saharan Africa, but 22.9% (42 of 183 cases) of all non-B infections were probably acquired in the United Kingdom. Among the 21 white UK-born patients infected with a non-B subtype, 15 probably acquired the infection in the United Kingdom and only 6 of these patients reported a source sexual partner from an HIV endemic area. All 13 black Caribbean patients with a non-B infection most likely acquired their infection in the United Kingdom, most of whom (8 of 13 patients) were probably infected by a partner from an HIV endemic area. Potential acquisition of HIV infection in the United Kingdom was lowest among black African patients with a non-B infection, and most of these infections were probably acquired from a partner originating from an HIV endemic area. This study provides the first evidence for onward transmission of non-B subtypes in the United Kingdom, particularly among the black Caribbean population.     

Ethnic differences in blood pressure monitoring and control in south east London

Background

High blood pressure is the single most important risk factor worldwide for the development of cardiovascular disease, and has been shown to affect some ethnic minority groups disproportionately.

Aim

To explore ethnic inequalities in blood pressure monitoring and control.

Method

Data from Lambeth DataNet was used, based on case records from GP practices in one inner-city London borough. Blood pressure monitoring and control was compared using Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) targets for patients with: diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease. The study controlled for age, sex, social deprivation, and clustering within GP practices.

Results

A total of 16 613 patients met the study criteria, with 5962 categorised as black/black British. Blood pressure monitoring was similar across ethnic groups and as good, if not better, for black patients compared to white. However, marked ethnic inequalities in blood pressure control were found, with black patients significantly less likely to achieve QOF targets than their white counterparts (odds ratio [OR] 0.73; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.64 to 0.82). Further inequalities were revealed in blood pressure control within disease groups and ethnic subgroups. In particular, blood pressure control was poor in African patients with diabetes (OR 0.63; 95% CI = 0.50 to 0.79) and Caribbean patients with coronary heart disease (OR 0.53; 95% CI = 0.37 to 0.77) when compared with white patients.

Discussion

While black patients with chronic conditions are equally likely to have their blood pressure monitored, their blood pressure control is consistently poorer than that of their white counterparts. This may have important implications for cardiovascular risk management in black patients.     

Acceptance of pneumococcal vaccine under standing orders by race and ethnicity

PURPOSE: To assess whether and how pneumococcal vaccine acceptance occurs after nurse recommendation varies by race/ethnicity. METHODS: We prospectively evaluated nurses' standing orders to assess and vaccinate high-risk patients in a general medicine practice. RESULTS: Of 370 adult patients surveyed (60% nonwhite), 78 (21%) declined vaccination following nurse recommendation, and 43 (12%) persisted in declining after physician consultation. Three-hundred-twenty-seven (88%) patients accepted vaccination: 292 (79%) accepted following nurse recommendation and 35 (9%) following physician consultation. African Americans (19%) were significantly more likely to decline compared with whites (8%) and Asians (5%) (P= 0.01). Reasons for refusal included believing vaccination was unnecessary (32%), fearing shots in general (21%), fearing vaccine-induced illness (26%) and wanting more informotion regarding the vaccine (9%). CONCLUSION: Standing orders, physicians' firm recommendations and addressing patients' vaccine-related concerns may reduce racial/ethnic disparities in vaccination.     

Coping with depression in later life: a qualitative study of help-seeking in three ethnic groups

BACKGROUND: Research suggests high levels of depression and low levels of service use among older adults from UK minority ethnic groups. This study aimed to explore older adults' attitudes and beliefs regarding what would help someone with depression, and to consider how these may facilitate or deter older people from accessing treatment. METHOD: In-depth individual qualitative interviews were conducted with older adults with depression (treated and untreated) and the non-depressed older population. A multi-cultural approach was used that incorporated the perspectives of 32 black Caribbean, 33 South Asian and 45 white British older adults. RESULTS: Participants felt that the responsibility for combating depression was an internal and individual task with support considered secondary. However, the majority expressed a willingness and desire to discuss psychosocial problems. Within the black Caribbean group, conversing with God through prayer was seen as an effective means of overcoming depression, while a large proportion of South Asian and white British participants identified families as an important source of help. There was wide variation in how older adults construed the role of the general practitioner (GP) and many expressed acute awareness of the demands on GPs' time. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to socialize and remain active may provide a useful and acceptable adjunct to clinical interventions. However, there is a need to communicate that depression often necessitates formal help, and that it is acceptable to voice concerns regarding emotional states in a GP consultation. The findings suggest that older adults would welcome the opportunity to discuss their feelings with health-care professionals.     

The reported availability of general practitioners and the influence of practice list size.

BACKGROUND: Combined practice list sizes have increased, but larger practice size may be associated with disadvantage to patients. AIM: The aim of the study was to investigate the availability of general practitioners as reported by their patients and the relationship between reported availability and practice list size. METHOD: A one-week questionnaire survey of 8315 patients attending participating practices in West Lothian, Scotland, was conducted. Patients were asked about the arrangements for being seen at that attendance, their perception of doctor availability following an urgent or non-urgent consultation request, and their social and demographic characteristics. The proportion of respondents reporting they could see a doctor the same day following an urgent consultation request or within 2 days following a non-urgent consultation request was determined for each practice. RESULTS: Eighteen out of 26 practices agreed to participate in the study, and an overall response rate of 61% was obtained in the patient survey. Participating practices were representative of all practices in the area with regard to list size; questionnaire respondents were representative of the age profile of participating practices and were representative of the local general population with regard to car and home ownership. There was a wide variation among practices in the proportion of questionnaire respondents who reported that a doctor was available within 2 days following a non-urgent consultation request [mean 60.7 (SE 7.1%)], but less variation for the reported availability on the same day after an urgent consultation request [mean 81.1 (SE 2.3 %)]. A significant negative association was demonstrated between combined practice list size and reported non-urgent or urgent availability. CONCLUSION: Wide variation exists between practices with regard to patients' perceptions of doctor availability, and smaller practices may have advantages in this regard. The feelings and perceptions of patients should be taken into account when planning or reviewing the delivery of primary health care.     

Involving patients in primary care consultations: assessing preferences using discrete choice experiments

BACKGROUND: Shared decision making (SDM) involves patients and doctors contributing as partners to treatment decisions. It is not known whether or to what extent SDM contributes to the welfare arising from a consultation, and how important this contribution is relative to other attributes of a consultation. AIM: To identify patient preferences for SDM relative to other utility bearing attributes of a consultation. DESIGN OF STUDY: In parallel with a randomised trial in training GPs in SDM competencies and risk communication skills, a discrete choice experiment exercise was conducted to assess patients' utilities. SETTING: Twenty general practices in South Wales, UK. METHOD: Five hundred and eighty-four responders from 747 patients attending the randomised trial (response rate = 78%). All patients had one of four conditions (atrial fibrillation, menorrhagia, menopausal symptoms or prostatism) and attended a consultation with a doctor in their own practice. Patients were randomised to attend a consultation either with a doctor who had received no training in the study or risk communication training alone or SDM training alone, or both combined. RESULTS: Five key utility bearing attributes of a consultation were identified. All significantly influenced patient's choice of preferred consultation style (P<0.001). Larger increases in utility were associated with changes on "doctor listens" attribute, followed by easily understood information, a shared treatment decision, more information and longer consultation. Utilities were influenced by whether the doctor had received risk communication training alone or SDM training alone, or both combined, prior to the consultations. The randomised trial itself had identified that the communication processes of these consultations changed significantly, with greater patient involvement in decision making, after the training interventions. CONCLUSION: Shared treatment decisions were valued less than some other attributes of a consultation. However, patient utilities for such involvement appeared responsive to changes in experiences of consultations. This suggests that SDM may gain greater value among patients once they have experienced it.     

Eliciting patients' concerns: a randomised controlled trial of different approaches by the doctor.

BACKGROUND: Although a 'patient-centred' approach to general practice consultation is widely advocated, there is mixed evidence of its benefits. AIM: To measure the costs and benefits of using a prompt to elicit patients' concerns when they consult for minor illness. DESIGN OF STUDY: An open randomised controlled trial. SETTING: Four training semi-rural general practices in the south- east of the United Kingdom. METHOD: Patients identified during the first part of the consultation as having a self-limiting illness were randomised to a second part of the consultation that was conducted 'as usual' or involved a written prompt to elicit the patient's concerns. After each consultation the doctor noted the diagnosis and the consultation length and the patient self-completed a questionnaire containing measures of satisfaction, enablement and anxiety. RESULTS: One hundred and ten patients were studied. Patients in the elicitation group reported a small but significant increase in the 'professional care' score of the consultation satisfaction questionnaire (88.2 versus 80.9, mean difference = 7.3, 95% confidence interval = 2.0 to 12.6) but no other benefits were detected. Consultations in the elicitation group, however, were longer by about a minute. CONCLUSION: Given the pressures on consultation time in general practice there must be questions about the practical value of eliciting patients' concerns if the benefit of doing so is small and the cost large.     

‘What's in a face?’ The role of doctor ethnicity,age and gender in the formation of patients’ judgements: an experimental study

BACKGROUND: Research has shown that doctor's make judgements about patients on the basis of their demographic characteristics. Little is known about how patients judge their doctors. AIM: The present study aimed to explore the impact of a doctor's ethnicity, age and gender on patients' judgements in the setting of a general practice consultation. METHODS: The study involved an experimental factorial design using vignettes with patients receiving one of eight photos of a doctor who varied in terms of ethnic group (Asian versus White), age (older versus younger) and gender (male versus female). Six general practices in South West London took part and 309 patients (response rate = 77%) rated the doctor in terms of the expected behaviour of the doctor, the expected behaviour of the patient and the patient ease with the doctor. RESULTS: The results showed that in terms of the impact of ethnic group, the Asian doctor and White doctor received comparable ratings for most questions; however, the Asian doctor was rated as being more likely to explore emotional aspects of health than the White doctor. Differences for age and gender were more profound. In particular, both the younger doctor and the female doctor were judged to have a better personal manner, better technical skills, better explanation skills, to be more likely to explore emotional aspects of health and empower the patient. Patients also stated that they were more likely to have faith in their diagnoses, advice and to comply with treatment and preferred both the younger and female doctors for a physical examination. In addition, younger doctors were deemed to be more likely to refer a patient to see a hospital specialist and female doctors were seen to be more likely to suggest complementary therapy. CONCLUSION: A doctor's age and gender have a stronger impact on a patient's judgements than their ethnicity.     

The importance of empathy in the enablement of patients attending the Glasgow Homoeopathic Hospital.

BACKGROUND: Patient enablement in general practice is known to be limited by consultation length. However, the processes within the consultation that lead to enablement are not well understood. AIMS: To investigate patient enablement in a setting where time is less of a constraint than in primary care, in order to determine the importance of other factors in enablement. DESIGN OF STUDY: Exploratory questionnaire-based study. SETTING: Two hundred consecutive outpatients attending four doctors at the Glasgow Homoeopathic Hospital, an NHS-funded integrated complementary and orthodox medicine unit. METHOD: Information was collected on enablement and a range of other factors, including the patients expectations, their perception of the doctors empathy, and the doctors own confidence in the doctor-patient relationship. RESULTS: Although there were many factors that correlated with enablement, multi-regression analysis showed patients expectation, doctor's empathy (as perceived by the patient), and doctor's own confidence in the therapeutic relationship to be the three key factors. Together they accounted for 41% of the variation in enablement, with empathy being the single most important factor (66% of the explained variation in enablement). CONCLUSION: Patient enablement at the Glasgow Homoeopathic Hospital is mainly related to the patients perception of the doctor's empathy.     

Building concordant relationships with patients starting antidepressant medication

Fifty one patients beginning courses of antidepressant medication were recruited from general practice surgeries in two health authorities in London and interviewed on two occasions. Respondents were asked about their experiences of using antidepressant medication, including their information needs and the level of involvement which they had had in making decisions about their medication. Analysis was carried out using qualitative procedures. The study identified information needs which were unmet at the start of treatment, including the impact of adverse drug reactions on patients' lives, the very gradual process of recovery and information regarding dosage prescribed in the context of minimum and maximum dosages. Respondents also had a broad view of the term dependency that needed to be addressed. However, some respondents reported that they experienced difficulty in absorbing information given during the initial consultation. Therefore developing strategies for reinforcement of information would be advantageous. Patients involvement in decision making varied between respondents and at different points in therapy.     

Disclosure of HIV status: the role of ethnicity among people living with HIV in London

OBJECTIVE: To examine HIV disclosure among people living with HIV in London. METHODS: Between June 2004 and June 2005, 1687 people living with HIV (73% response) receiving medical care in National Health Service (NHS) clinics in northeast London completed a confidential, self-administered questionnaire. Respondents were asked whether they had told anyone else that they had HIV, and if so, whom. RESULTS: The analysis included 1407 people: 667 black African heterosexual respondents (453 women, 214 men) and 740 gay men (633 white, 107 ethnic minority). The majority of respondents (88.0%) had told at least 1 other person about their HIV infection, but this varied between groups: white gay men, 95.0%; ethnic minority gay men, 93.5%; black African heterosexual women, 84.8%; black African heterosexual men, 76.6% (P < 0.001). Black African heterosexual men (65.3%) and women (60.4%) were less likely to have told their current partner about their HIV infection than white (86.2%) or ethnic minority gay men (85.2%): black African men, adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.25, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.14, 0.44, P < 0.001; black African women, AOR 0.24, 95% CI 0.15, 0.39, P < 0.001 (reference group, white gay men). Only 1 in 5 respondents (21.6%) had disclosed their HIV status to their employer (white gay men, 30.5%; ethnic minority gay men, 15.8%; black African heterosexual women, 10.5%; black African heterosexual men, 8.8%; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this London study there were striking differences, by ethnicity, in the extent to which people with HIV disclosed their infection. This has important implications in light of the 2005 Disability Discrimination Act and recent prosecutions in the UK for the reckless transmission of HIV.