大白鼠下腹壁TRAM皮瓣血供特点的实验研究

目的 探讨以腹壁上动脉为蒂的大白鼠下腹壁ＴＲＡＭ皮瓣的血运特点。方法 在大白鼠下腹壁设计并建立动脉供血不足，静脉回流部分受阻以及增加ＩＶ区静脉回流的３种ＴＲＡＭ皮瓣实验模型。结果 （１）以腹壁上动脉供血的大白鼠下腹壁ＴＲＡＭ皮瓣其成活面积可至双侧前线。（２）腹壁上动脉主干主要营养ＴＲＡＭ皮瓣的Ⅰ区和Ⅱ区。（３）静脉回流部分受阻可造成ＴＲＡＭ皮瓣Ⅲ区和Ⅳ区的坏死。（４）增加ＴＲＡＭ皮瓣第Ⅳ区尖端的皮     

Dichloroacetate reduces tissue necrosis in a rat transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap model

OBJECTIVE: Ischemia-related complications may occur during postmastectomy transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap reconstruction. The aim of our study was to investigate whether necrosis of susceptible flap regions could be reduced by dichloroacetate (DCA)-induced stimulation of oxidative metabolism in hypoxic tissue. METHODS: The study was a randomized control trial using male Sprague-Dawley rats. A pedicled TRAM flap based upon the right inferior epigastric artery was elevated and reapproximated. Animals were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatment groups (n = 6). Group I received no DCA; groups II through V were administered 75 mg/kg DCA orally 24 hours preoperative; in addition, groups II through IV received 75 mg/kg/d DCA orally postoperative for 4 days; group III also received 75 mg/kg DCA (IP) intraoperatively; groups IV and V were given 15 mg/kg/d DCA orally for 6 days before the 24-hour preoperative treatment. Four days postsurgery, skin paddles were photographed and assessed for viability. Underlying TRAM muscle was biopsied for histologic analysis. Blood lactate levels were measured at pre- and postoperative time points. The mean percentages of viable skin paddle were as follows: 32.0%+/- 4.0% (group I), 68.1% +/- 6.2% (group II), 84.3% +/- 5.9% (group III), 92.8% +/- 2.0% (group IV), 82.6% +/- 5.8% (group V). RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were found in all experimental (DCA) groups relative to the controls (P < 0.01). Group IV (6-day DCA preconditioning, plus 24-hour preoperative and 4-day postoperative treatment) displayed the greatest improvement in flap viability, significantly better than other DCA groups (P < 0.01). Group IV also had significantly lower serum lactate levels than controls (P < 0.05). Histologic examination of muscle biopsies revealed reductions in inflammation and necrosis correlating with DCA treatment and skin paddle survival. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that DCA may provide a useful pharmacologic tool for reducing ischemia-related necrosis in TRAM flaps.     

The augmented TRAM flap: a technique for the large-breasted patients

The transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap is the most common method of autogenous breast reconstruction. In high-risk patients, a reliable and bulky flap is needed to achieve breast symmetry and a mound together with durable satisfactory projection. The purpose of this study is to look into the use of contralateral zones of the pedicled TRAM flap to improve flap survival and to reduce the incidence of fat necrosis in order to achieve good cosmetic results. Seven obese large-breasted patients of cup size C and above who underwent primary breast reconstruction by the same surgeon are presented. In each case, all the four zones of the TRAM flap were used to achieve symmetry of the reconstruction. Patients had mastectomy with or without axillary clearance. The pedicled TRAM flap was elevated and the other side was raised as a perforator flap for microvascular augmentation. The perforator vascular pedicle was anastomosed to the thoracodorsal vessels in all cases. The anterior rectus sheath was repaired with a mesh in all cases. All the flaps were coned to achieve a good projection. All flaps survived with no complications or loss. All patients were satisfied with the outcome. One of our patients developed an abdominal bulge that was treated conservatively. Microvascular augmentation improved survival of zones III and IV of the TRAM flap, exemplified by flap survival and no incidence of fat necrosis. It is a good reconstructive tool to achieve breast volume, symmetry, and projection. In addition, it reduces the need of secondary breast surgery for the contralateral breast in the future.     

Elevating the island: the simplest method of delaying the TRAM flap

Vascular compromise is a relatively frequent complication of breast reconstruction performed with the use of pedicled transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flaps. The authors present their experience in delaying TRAM flaps by preelevating the island 7 to 10 days before flap transfer. The skin island is fully incised and raised from the lateral tip to the lateral border of the rectus muscle on one side, and is raised from the tip to the midline on the opposite side. The inferior epigastric pedicle of the rectus muscle remains intact. This method was used in 55 patients. No total flap loss, and only two cases (3.6%) of partial flap necrosis were observed. Preelevating the island is a very simple and effective method of TRAM flap delay, alternative to the ligation of the inferior epigastric pedicle.     

Cutaneous blood flow in the TRAM flap.

Changes in the cutaneous blood flow of the pedicled TRAM flap for breast reconstruction were studied in 15 patients with laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) and transcutaneous oxygen tension (ptcO2). One patient was excluded from the study. The LDF value increased to 127 +/- 15% of the base line on the random and to 151 +/- 13% (p less than 0.01) on the axial side after dissection of the random side of the flap. Ligation of the deep inferior epigastric artery caused a decrease to 57 +/- 8% (p less than 0.001) on the random and to 78 +/- 11% on the axial side. The random side ptcO2 decreased from 48 +/- 2 mmHg [6.4 +/- 0.3 kPa] to 17 +/- 5 mmHg [2.3 +/- 0.7 kPa] (p less than 0.001) after dissection of the flap and remained near zero for one week. Eight patients developed minor cutaneous necrosis on the random side, probably because the superior epigastric system could not adequately nourish the TRAM flap. Low LDF and ptcO2 values after pedicle ligation and a negative response to oxygen stimulation predicted skin necrosis.     

Venous drainage system of the transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap

The transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap has been widely used for reconstruction of the breast. Partial loss of the flap is still a problem, however, and venous congestion may cause partial necrosis of the flap. There are few studies of the venous anatomy of the TRAM flap that compares with that of the arterial system, so the aim of this study was to investigate the venous anatomy of the TRAM flap and assess its drainage pathway using venography. A mixture of barium and gelatin were injected through the cutaneous veins such as the superficial inferior epigastric vein (SIEV), the superficial circumflex iliac vein (SCIV), or the perforating branch of the deep inferior epigastric vein (DIEV) in 11 hemiTRAM flaps. Venograms of TRAM flaps were taken, and the venous anatomy evaluated. The study showed that it consisted of the dominant superficial venous system, the SIEV and SCIV, and the secondary deep venous system, and the perforating vein of DIEV (DIEV perforator). In addition, we saw the large communicating veins between the SIEV and DIEV perforator near the umbilicus. We think that these communicating veins, which are considered as the DIEV perforators between the superficial and deep venous system, are an important venous drainage pathway after the TRAM flap has been raised.     

Endothelin receptor blockade improves oxygenation in contralateral TRAM flap tissue in pigs.

Partial skin and fat necrosis is the most common complication occurring in TRAM flaps. It is related to disturbances of the microcirculation and oxygenation in the contralateral part of the flap. It may be hypothesised that the development of necrosis is promoted by the vasoconstrictor endothelin, the production of which is enhanced in ischaemic flap tissues. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of tezosentan, a new endothelin receptor blocker, on microcirculation and oxygenation in experimental TRAM flaps. The administration of tezosentan began preoperatively (3 mg/kg body weight) and then continued at a rate of 1.5 mg/kg/h. A TRAM flap with a skin island measuring 16 x 8 cm was raised in the middle of the epigastrium in minipigs. The flap was pedicled on the right superior epigastric vessels. Microcirculatory blood flow was measured with laser Doppler flowmetry and tissue oxygen tension was measured with a Clark-type microprobe. Dominant subcutaneous veins were cannulated in both the ipsilateral and the contralateral parts of the flap. Subdermal tissue oxygen tension in the contralateral part of the flap was significantly reduced 4h after surgery to 5 mmHg (ca. 48 mmHg in normal tissue) in the control group, but to only 12 mmHg in the group that had been administered tezosentan (P< 0.05). Furthermore, tezosentan significantly attenuated venous hypertension (14 mmHg versus 24 mmHg), as well as lactate (4.0 mmol/l versus 5.6 mmol/l) and haemoglobin (10.2 g/dl versus 11.4 g/dl) concentrations in the venous effluent of the contralateral part of the flap, although microcirculatory blood flow remained virtually unchanged. Our findings suggest that tezosentan improves oxygenation and metabolism in the jeopardised contralateral flap tissue, probably as a result of a decrease in venous vascular resistance and fluid extravasation.     

Supercharged dorsoulnar island flap: a case report and review of the literature

Complicated hand and wrist defects require durable and pliable tissues which are offered by flaps, instead of skin grafts. Various dorsoulnar flap options have been used in the regional flap armamentarium of the upper limb. Poor venous drainage may be a considerable handicap when moderate to large skin paddle dorsoulnar flaps are used. In the present case, we aimed to reduce the risk of necrosis by supercharging the dorsoulnar island flap. The current literature regarding dorsoulnar island flap has also been reviewed with focus on this flap. This technique has successfully been used for a complex wrist defect in a 48-year-old man. Postoperative follow up was one year. The flap survived completely with perfect hand function. We think this modification can prevent possible venous stress in the pedicled and free dorsoulnar flaps by obtaining extraveneous drainage. The method is simple, does not need sophisticated microsurgical procedure and longer operative time.     

Donor site morbidity after rectus abdominis muscle flaps

Twenty-three patients with 25 rectus abdominis muscle flaps are presented and the donor site morbidity is discussed. There was no flap loss. Donor site morbidity included two hernias after bilateral free TRAM flaps and one abdominal bulging after a free rectus muscle flap. A literature review reveals the latter to be under 10% with no difference between pedicled and free TRAM or free rectus muscle flaps; synthetic mesh offers no advantage. Abdominal strength decreases significantly after bilateral pedicled TRAM flaps, but to a lesser degree after unilateral cases when tested functionally. However, most patients are not handicapped in normal life. Pregnancy after TRAM flaps does not necessarily place the abdominal wall at risk. Age has no effect on complications but obesity does have a minor affect on abdominal wall morbidity. The free TRAM flap is better than the pedicled TRAM with regards to post-abdominoplasty necrosis, duration of hospitalization and return to baseline functional status. Skin edge necrosis, umbilical necrosis, infection and hematoma occur in 1–5% of cases. Smoking increases the risk of skin and umbilical necrosis, more so in pedicled TRAM flaps.     

A new flap model in the rat: the pectoral skin flap

The purpose of this study was to describe a new axial-pattern experimental flap model in the rat. Wistar rats weighing 200 to 250 g were used in the experiment. In 15 rats, the superficial anatomy of the ventral thoracic region was studied by anatomic dissection, dye injection, and microangiography, using 5 rats in each group. The anatomic studies revealed that the ventral thoracic skin derives its principal blood supply from the long thoracic artery--a branch of the common thoracic artery. Based on these anatomic studies, the pectoral skin flap model, pedicled on the long thoracic vessels, was created in the rat. The flap is bounded medially by the midsternal line, laterally by the anterior axillary line, and superiorly and inferiorly by transverse lines passing at the level of the suprasternal notch and the xyphoid process respectively. In 5 animals, bilateral flaps (N = 10) were raised and replaced in situ. In 15 animals, oversized flaps were created by extending the flap for both a greater width (N = 10) and length (N = 10). Although all the flaps limited to the cutaneous territory as described were found to survive totally, oversized flaps underwent partial necrosis distally. The authors conclude that the pectoral flap is a simple and reliable skin flap model for future biological and pharmacological study because it is very easy to raise, has a consistent vascular pedicle, and has well-defined borders with consistent landmarks.     

小腿穿支血管筋膜蒂皮瓣修复下肢软组织缺损

目的:探讨小腿穿支血管筋膜蒂皮瓣转移的手术方法和临床效果.方法:1998年5月至2009年1月临床应用带小腿内、后、前外、后外侧穿支血管的筋膜蒂皮瓣邻近转位,对下肢皮肤软组织缺损创面进行修复共62例,男50例,女12例;年龄7～78岁.其中应用带胫后动脉穿支的小腿内侧筋膜蒂皮瓣23例,带腓动脉终末穿支小腿前外侧筋膜蒂皮辩9例,带腓动脉穿支腓肠神经营养血管筋膜蒂皮瓣22例,带腘外侧动脉小腿后外侧筋膜蒂皮瓣8例.结果:除2例术后皮辩远端表皮坏死结痂,1例皮瓣远端部分皮肤坏死行Ⅱ期植皮,其余皮瓣均完全成活.随访1个月～3年,皮瓣外观满意,功能良好.结论:小腿部单个穿支血管供血面积有限,应用带穿支血管营养血管链的筋膜蒂度瓣可扩大小腿皮瓣的裁取面积,保证皮瓣的血供及回流.     

A rat musculocutaneous flap model: the biceps femoris musculocutaneous flap

The purpose of this study was to describe a new musculocutaneous flap model in the rat. A total of 25 Wistar rats weighing 200 to 280 g were used in this experiment. In 15 rats, the vascular anatomy of the biceps femoris muscle and the cutaneous blood supply of its overlying posterior thigh skin were studied by anatomic dissection, dye injection, and microangiography using 5 rats in each group. The anatomic studies revealed that the main axial vessel supplying the biceps femoris muscle was the caudal femoral branch of the popliteal vessels. The posterior thigh skin overlying the biceps femoris muscle received a consistent musculocutaneous perforator at the center of the mid-posterior line of the posterior thigh. Based on the caudal femoral-popliteal vascular pedicle, the biceps femoris musculocutaneous flap was created in the rat, comprised of the whole muscle and its overlying posterior thigh skin. The skin paddle was designed as an ellipse with its longitudinal axis paralleling that of the extremity, generally measuring 4 x 2 cm. Island flaps were raised as described and replaced either in situ (N = 5) or transposed to a sacral defect (N = 5). Results showed that the cutaneous islands of all the flaps survived completely. Tetrazolium blue stain used to indicate muscle survival revealed that the average muscle viability was 86.7+/-3.4%. The authors conclude that the biceps femoris musculocutaneous flap is a reliable and true musculocutaneous flap model for future biological and pharmacological studies. It offers the following advantages: It has a consistent vascular pedicle and a musculocutaneous perforator, it supports a relatively large skin island, and there is no risk of autocannibalization of the flap because the flap is located dorsally.     

The anteromedial thigh fasciocutaneous flap pedicled on the supragenicular septocutaneous perforator: application in 11 patients

Skin defects around the knee remain a challenge for the reconstructive surgeons. Choosing appropriate flaps for coverage is crucial to preserve the knee joint or to restore its function. On the basis of anatomic results in 20 cadaveric specimens, we found a constant supragenicular fasciocutaneous perforator within 3 cm above the adductor tubercle, which arose from the saphenous branch of the descending genicular artery. Based on it, the distally pedicled anteromedial thigh fasciocutaneous flap can be harvested from the anteromedial thigh. Between 2003 and 2009, we performed the distally pedicled anteromedial thigh flaps in 11 patients. The site of skin defects included the popliteal fossa, proximal ? leg, and amputation stump below knee. The size of skin defects ranged from 15 × 6 cm to 27 × 9 cm, and the corresponding size of the flaps ranged from 15 × 10 cm to 32 × 9 cm. Of 11 flaps, 10 flaps survived unevently, except 1 flap which suffered partial necrosis due to venous congestion. The patients were followed up for 3 weeks to 12 months. The donor site healed uneventfully without complications in all patients. Additionally, the skin paddle matched with the recipient in terms of skin color, texture, and thickness. The anteromedial thigh fasciocutaneous flap pedicled on the supragenicular perforator is a reliable and versatile alternative to cover skin defects around the knee.     

Meta-analysis of flap perfusion and donor site complications for breast reconstruction using pedicled versus free TRAM and DIEP flaps

ObjectivesThe transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap is an important option for breast reconstruction. Several studies have recently evaluated whether a greater number of complications result from the use of pedicled TRAM (pTRAM) flaps versus either free TRAM (fTRAM) flaps or deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flaps. To clarify the evidence regarding this issue, we performed an objective meta-analysis of published studies.Materials and methodsA literature search of articles published between January 1, 1990, to January 1, 2017 was performed using the PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Cochrane databases. Heterogeneity was statistically analyzed, and fixed effects and random effects models were used as appropriate.ResultsEleven articles comparing pedicled TRAM (pTRAM) flaps with either free TRAM (fTRAM) or DIEP flaps were included. The articles evaluated a total of 3968 flaps, including 1891 pTRAM flaps, 866 fTRAM flaps, and 1211 DIEP flaps. Patients with fTRAM flaps had a significantly lower risk of fat necrosis and partial flap necrosis than those with pTRAM flaps. No difference was observed in total flap necrosis and hernia or bulge between fTRAM and pTRAM flaps. No difference was noted in flap complications between DIEP and pTRAM flaps except for hernia or bulge..ConclusionAlthough pTRAM flaps are being replaced by fTRAM and DIEP flaps, which exhibit fewer complications related to flap ischemia and donor site morbidity, it was unclear from the literature which flap type was most beneficial regarding flap vascularity and donor site morbidity. Hence, surgeons should choose the appropriate option based on their preferences and on patient factors..     

胫后动脉穿支皮瓣修复踝部软组织缺损

目的：探讨胫后动脉穿支皮瓣的临床应用疗效。方法采用胫后动脉穿支皮瓣以螺旋桨式旋转修复或以滑行推进的方式修复内踝软组织缺损6例,前踝软组织缺损3例,足跟后侧的软组织缺损13例。结果22例移植组织成活21例,1例皮瓣尖端坏死,经换药二期植皮后成活,成活率95.5%。术后经3～20个月随访,皮瓣外观、质地良好,痛温觉有一定的恢复。结论胫后动脉穿支皮瓣是修复内踝、前踝、足跟后侧软组织缺损的较佳方法。     

Feasibility of postmastectomy radiation therapy after TRAM flap breast reconstruction

Background: Postoperative radiotherapy (PORT) has been shown to decrease locoregional failure rates in high-risk breast cancer patients following modified radical mastectomy. However, there had not been a study evaluating the effect of PORT in patients after transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap breast reconstruction. Therefore, we evaluated flap viability, cosmetic results, and locoregional recurrence in patients who underwent TRAM flap reconstruction and PORT. Methods: The charts of patients who had undergone modified radical mastectomy with TRAM flap reconstruction and PORT at our institution were reviewed. Patients were examined in the clinic and interviewed by telephone to evaluate their perceptions of the cosmetic result. Results: PORT was delivered to 19 patients with TRAM flaps (3 pedicled and 16 free flaps) between 1988 and 1994. There were no TRAM flap losses as a result of either surgical or radiotherapy complications. Two patients developed fat necrosis, one with a pedicled and one with a free TRAM flap. Patients with pedicled TRAM flaps noted more volume loss in the breast after radiation therapy. Eighty-four percent of patients felt their overall cosmetic result was excellent or good; only one patient reported a poor cosmetic result. Local control was achieved in three of the four patients who received PORT for local recurrence. There was only one local recurrence among the 14 patients who received PORT because they were at high risk of local recurrence. Conclusions: These results suggest that PORT can be given safely to high-risk patients following TRAM flap breast reconstruction with excellent cosmetic results and good locoregional control.     

The supramalleolar flap. Our experience in 35 cases

The authors report 35 cases of use of the supramalleolar flap described by Masquelet et al. in 1988. In 27 cases, the arterial blood supply was in a mixed (anterograde and retrograde) fashion since the perforating branch of the peroneal artery was spared. In eight cases the arterial blood supply was in a retrograde fashion due to the location of the skin loss. As described by Valenti et al. In 1991, the authors recommend the use of a distal subcutaneous pedicled to avoid skin grafting over the tendons at the distal part of the lag. In main cases of anterograde blood supply the superficial peroneal nerve could be spread. In 33 cases the plastic result was assessed as satisfactory. The coverage of the weight-bearing portion of the heel was done two times with no satisfactory result. Coverage of the medial malleolus area, Achilles tendon and dorsal skin of the foot represent the main indications and the best results. Five times, a venous congestion was observed with three cases of partial necrosis of the flap. The use of a large subcutaneous pedicle did not always prevent such venous problems, though this technical aspect improves the vascular reliability of the flap. The main local alternative is the distal pedicled sural flap that needs to divide the sural nerve and not allows coverage as distal as the supramalleolar flap. Except the distal coverage of the foot, the indications of these previous both flaps are similar. In case of foot coverage, the medial plantar flap based on the lateral plantar vascular bundle, as described by Martin et al. in 1991, is the other one local alternative. Free flaps are indicated for extensive skin losses, or when a poor distal vascularity of the leg does not allow reliability of distal pedicled flaps.     

Successful salvage of venous thrombosis of a free flap by creation of a venocutaneous fistula

This report describes the creation of a venocutaneous fistula to salvage a free fibular osteocutaneous flap compromised by extensive venous thrombosis. This technique has previously been described for salvage of digital replants, but this is the first report of a venocutaneous fistula being used to salvage a free flap. A 21-year-old woman underwent a 9-cm resection of the distal left tibia for an aneurysmal bone cyst. A contralateral right fibular osteocutaneous free flap was used for reconstruction. On postoperative day 2, the skin paddle showed evidence of venous congestion. Reexploration demonstrated extensive thrombosis throughout the entire venous system of the flap. The venae comitantes were transected as far back as possible and brought to the surface of the skin through two small stab wounds to allow venous egress. After a short course of heparin and dextran, the skin flap healed uneventfully and both osteosynthesis sites consolidated. A venocutaneous fistula provides a path of relatively low resistance for venous outflow, improving the arterial inflow-venous outflow balance for a short time until neovascularization and collateral venous channels develop. The venocutaneous fistula technique may be considered for salvage of free flaps compromised by extensive venous thrombosis.     

Delaying the skin for TRAM flaps

This study was undertaken to determine whether a less extensive delay procedure would be as efficacious as the standard delay procedure in breast reconstruction.Between July 1996 and February 1999, 15 patients underwent delay procedures prior to breast reconstruction. Six patients underwent the standard delay procedure. Nine patients underwent a less extensive skin delay procedure. Transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) reconstruction was performed 1 week after delay procedures.Average operating time was 28.7 minutes for the standard delay and 19.7 minutes for the skin paddle delay. The incidences of fat necrosis were 17% in the standard delay group and 22% in the skin paddle delay group. The incidences of partial flap loss/slow healing were 17% in the standard delay group and 22% in the skin paddle delay group. The incidence of complications in each group was the same: approximately 1 per patient.Operating times were not statistically different between the two groups (p = 0.06). There was no increase in the incidence of slow healing/partial flap loss or fat necrosis in the skin delay group. The skin delay procedure for TRAM flaps seems to provide a concise delay procedure that does not increase the incidence of complications in those high-risk patients.