The Role of Regulation in Quality Improvement

Many new methods for measuring the quality of health care have been devised since 1970. For the past ten years, the health care field has been struggling to integrate industrial models into its quality improvement systems. In order to judge whether regulation has evolved in tandem with these developments, three critical questions are examined: Is regulation improving the quality of health care? Are regulators integrating the tools of quality research into their oversight activities? Is there a way to combine continuous quality improvement (CQI) and modern methods of quality measurement into a new regulatory format? An exploration of these questions produces relatively little evidence that regulation has moved in the recommended direction, although there are some encouraging signs that regulators are becoming more responsive to the issues.     

Continuing education meets the learning organization: the challenge of a systems approach to patient safety

Since the release of the report of the Institute of Medicine on medical errors and patient safety in November 1999, health policy makers and health care leaders in several nations have sought solutions that will improve the safety of health care. This attention to patient safety has high-lighted the importance of a learning approach and a systems approach to quality measurement and improvement. Balanced with the need for public disclosure of performance, confidential reporting with feedback is one of the prime ways that nations such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia have approached this challenge. In the United States, the Quality Interagency Coordination Task Force has convened federal agencies that are involved in health care quality improvement for a coordinated initiative. Based on an investment in a strong research foundation in health care quality measurement and improvement, there are eight key lessons for continuing education if it is to parlay the interest in patient safety into enhanced continuing education and quality improvement in learning health care systems. The themes for these lessons are (1) informatics for information, (2) guidelines as learning tools, (3) learning from opinion leaders, (4) learning from the patient, (5) decision support systems, (6) the team learning together, (7) learning organizations, and (8) just-in-time and point-of-care delivery.     

Applying Dynamic Simulation Modeling Methods in Health Care Delivery Research—The SIMULATE Checklist: Report of the ISPOR Simulation Modeling Emerging Good Practices Task Force

Health care delivery systems are inherently complex, consisting of multiple tiers of interdependent subsystems and processes that are adaptive to changes in the environment and behave in a nonlinear fashion. Traditional health technology assessment and modeling methods often neglect the wider health system impacts that can be critical for achieving desired health system goals and are often of limited usefulness when applied to complex health systems. Researchers and health care decision makers can either underestimate or fail to consider the interactions among the people, processes, technology, and facility designs. Health care delivery system interventions need to incorporate the dynamics and complexities of the health care system context in which the intervention is delivered. This report provides an overview of common dynamic simulation modeling methods and examples of health care system interventions in which such methods could be useful. Three dynamic simulation modeling methods are presented to evaluate system interventions for health care delivery: system dynamics, discrete event simulation, and agent-based modeling. In contrast to conventional evaluations, a dynamic systems approach incorporates the complexity of the system and anticipates the upstream and downstream consequences of changes in complex health care delivery systems. This report assists researchers and decision makers in deciding whether these simulation methods are appropriate to address specific health system problems through an eight-point checklist referred to as the SIMULATE (System, Interactions, Multilevel, Understanding, Loops, Agents, Time, Emergence) tool. It is a primer for researchers and decision makers working in health care delivery and implementation sciences who face complex challenges in delivering effective and efficient care that can be addressed with system interventions. On reviewing this report, the readers should be able to identify whether these simulation modeling methods are appropriate to answer the problem they are addressing and to recognize the differences of these methods from other modeling approaches used typically in health technology assessment applications.     

The Codman competition: Rewarding excellence in performance measurement, 19 -20

BACKGROUND: Since 1997 the Ernest Amory Codman Award, the only health care award that recognizes excellence in performance measurement, has honored organizations and individuals for their use of process and outcomes measures to improve organization performance and quality of care. INDIVIDUAL AWARD WINNERS: The individual Codman award winners have advanced measurement of systems performance, health outcomes, and customer satisfaction. ORGANIZATION AWARD WINNERS: Forty-two organizations have been selected as winners. The work for which these organizations were recognized was categorized as improvements in direct patient care services, improved effectiveness of care through better teamwork, interdisciplinary planning, improvement of administrative processes, and improved quality of care in large regions or health care systems. Case studies from four organizations that have won the Codman award each represents a lesson or theme that may be instructive for other health care organizations--(1) the need for catalysts or agents of change, (2) evidence-based clinical pathways are essential for delivering optimal care to patients in large organizations, (3) quality assessment and improvement methods from other industries can be successfully applied to health care, (4) as health care is increasingly delivered by large networks and systems, quality takes on regional and even national relevance. CONCLUSION: The scope of Codman's endeavors is reflected in the array of quality improvement projects selected as Codman award winners.     

Psychiatric decision making in the 90's: the coming era of decision support

Guidelines for how mental health care is allocated form a pivotal point on the fulcrum balancing preservation of quality care and containment of costs. Advances in information system technology are creating new opportunities for research-based decision support tools in this area. Such tools can systematically and reliably scale the domains of evidence used in psychiatric assessment in order to more precisely describe the severity of impairment and point to appropriateness of care decisions. The first psychiatric decision support tools were introduced in the 1960s in response to changes in the mental health community, but research in this area tended to have limited inter-rater reliability or validity. More recently, several computerized decision support tools have been developed, with a stronger research base and consequently a wider application. These tools are reviewed, and one such tool is described in greater depth to illustrate the possibilities of computer technology and the direction in which decision support software is headed.     

Strategic information systems: can you support your decisions?

Information technology will continue to have a profound effect on decision analysis. Clinicians and technologists must continue to work together to achieve systems that enhance patient quality and managerial decision making. Users will continue to grow more sophisticated in using information systems for patient care and organizational analyses. Strategic information systems will not solve all problems that health care professionals may face. However, better decisions will result from improved availability of information. The acceptance, support, and imagination of power users will enhance and drive information system development and design. Strategic information systems will provide opportunities for data analysis enabling health care professionals to better support decisions.     

Rationing versus rationality: observations from outside the United States.

This commentary takes up A. David Paltiel's invitation to reflect on how to promote the use of decision analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis in health. From the perspective of a health services researcher outside the U.S. system, I make 3 arguments. First, the unthinking use of the term rationing for all applications of cost-effectiveness analysis distorts research priorities and may jeopardize wider public support. Second, public skepticism about decision and cost-effectiveness analysis (and thus the skepticism of decision makers) is well founded when ethical dimensions of these methods are not considered. We must continue to refine our methods to take account of societal values. Third, the United States may have particular problems in adopting more rational decision making in health care. The dominance of for-profit institutions in the U.S. health care system erodes the social legitimacy on which other systems depend to improve the rationality of health care decision making.     

An innovative approach to public health research: the case of a new center in Mexico.

This paper presents the conceptual and organizational elements that have guided the development of the Center for Public Health Research (CPHR) in Mexico. The CPHR was established in August 1984, in the midst of the most profound health care reform in Mexico in the last 40 years. The reform has included, among other measures, a Constitutional amendment recognizing the social right to health care, an energetic effort to decentralize the system so that each state will run its own services, an ambitious drive to extend primary health care coverage to all the population, and a strong promotion of research as the basis for strategic planning and for the development of standards of care. The creation of the CPHR is a response to the need for a firm base of epidemiologic and health systems research in Mexico. This need arises from the increasing complexity of the country's organizational arrangements for health care. In addition, the patterns of morbidity and mortality are also becoming more intricate, as Mexico is experiencing an epidemiologic transition whereby chronic diseases, mental ailments, and accidents are on the rise even as the incidence of infectious diseases and malnutrition continues to be high. As a unit of the Ministry of Health, the CPHR must strike a balance between relevance to decision making and excellence in the strict adherence to the norms of scientific research. To do so, it has developed a conceptual framework based on a tridimensional matrix. The dimensions of the matrix include substantive areas (i.e., the phenomena to be researched), knowledge areas (i.e., the disciplines pertinent to public health), and methodological areas (i.e., the methods to be applied in each project). The intersection of these dimensions produces different configurations of "research modules" that can be adapted to changing priorities. Current priorities of the CPHR include epidemiologic studies of the emerging conditions in the transition, migration and health, child survival, social organization and primary health care, health systems management, quality of care, and the development of information systems and quantitative models for public health research. Research projects are undertaken in a matrix type of organization in which academic departments are structured according to problems rather than disciplines. The analysis of Mexico's Center for Public Health Research may contribute to similar endeavors in other countries and also to the wider development of comparative studies on research organizations.     

Information technology and today's health care management

With the move to CPR, health information managers will be challenged to reengineer the ways they manage processes within the medical record department. A lot of age-old health information problems (i.e., missing documents, lost test results, and missing records) can be solved and productivity improved with imaging. The digitized records will allow simultaneous access to readily available, legible, and usable information for patient care, research, audits, and correspondence. However, the transition from a manual to computerized record presents many challenges. Health information managers will have to monitor the changeover carefully, anticipating the needs for new information and developing the necessary mechanisms to produce it, as well as implementing new technologies as they emerge. Conditions are right for an advance in health care information systems. Pressures and changes in structure in the health care industry require better management tools. Acceptance of HIS as a management tool is growing rapidly among the health care provider community. The technology to realize the CPR and advanced decision support systems is available. All the pieces are there--they just need to come together. As the health care organization's view of and need for information systems change, medical record professionals must draw on their knowledge and experience and make the transition from managers of record systems to managers of health care information systems.     

Policy decision making and outcomes research in drug utilization

Health-care systems all over the world tend to be under permanent review and policy decision making is increasingly driven only by political decisions concerning resource allocation. Drug utilization is a major concern within policy decision making, of relevance to and sometimes even bridging both the pharmaceutical industry and medical community. Outcomes and effectiveness research emphasizes the accountability of the health-care delivery system and focuses on the medium and long-term results of treatment and preventive interventions. With increasing health-care costs and growing concerns about the quality of care, appropriate health outcome measures are essential for assessing the quality, necessity, and effectiveness of health care. These outcome measures are reviewed addressing the influence of evidenced-based medicine and discussing the underlying methods which are applied throughout Europe and the US for reimbursement purposes and application procedures in drug utilization management.     

Data quality in hospital strategic information systems: a summary of survey findings

Fundamental changes in health care financing and delivery have resulted in an unprecedented need for data and information. The application of computer technology to daily hospital operations has gone far toward aiding various kinds of organizational decision making. The quality of those decisions, however, is dependent upon the quality of the data delivered by the various information systems used in the course of health care delivery and management. What remains unknown is the extent to which poor data quality occurs and what actions are taken to measure and control data quality in information systems used for strategic decision making. This article summarizes the results of a survey that was conducted for the purpose of explaining what information systems are important to hospital administrators in their strategic decision making, the frequency with which strategic decision makers encounter data quality problems, and what, if any, actions are taken to prevent, control, or correct apparent data quality problems.     

卫生筹资与就医、处方行为研究

本文通过卫生筹资方式的分析，提出了进行卫生筹资与就医、处方行为研究的理论模型，研究指标与资料收集方法。并在介绍国内外研究结果以后提出了一些进行卫生筹资改革的建议。我们发现卫生筹资方式与支付机制对病人与医生的行为以及药物使用都有影响。相对于自费病人来说，保险病人有更多的机会得到新药与贵药、住院治疗与向高层次医院转诊，也消耗更多的卫生资源。以按服务收费为基础的保险可增加临床服务与药品消费，并导致卫生费用快速增长，医生可能根据病人的保险情况与支付能力改变处方与治疗方案，并且认为与服务和处方挂钩的奖金制度有可能刺激过多用药行为。建议有关决策部门在出台有关卫生筹资与支付方式政策时，要考虑医生与病人的行为变化对药物及其它服务使用的影响，并同时要有一套规范医生与病人行为的措施，减少资源浪费与使得新政策健康发展、建议有关部门进行合理用药研究，进一步达到降低卫生费用与提高质量的改革目的。     

Design of effective health decision support systems: towards automating the health administrators's decision processes.

There has been very little evidence to suggest the effective use of, and demand for, computer-based systems by health care administrators to support their increasingly complex decision-making activities. This is so, despite a considerable amount of research attention paid to examining the efficiency and power of mathematical models, and the application of increasingly sophisticated Management Science Techniques to problems encountered within the health care system over the last several years. In recent times, advancing computer technology: 1) promises to close the gap between theory and practice, 2) creates a new perspective for computerized decision support in health care organisations, and 3) points to the need for new directions in research. This paper highlights the factors that are critical to the success of interfacing between health managerial decision-makers and effective computerized decision aids.     

Publicly reporting comprehensive quality and cost data: a health care system's transparency initiative

BACKGROUND: Transparency in health care, including the public reporting of health care results, is an expanding and unstoppable phenomenon. Health care systems have an opportunity to: (1) be proactive and accountable for the care they provide, (2) help patients learn more about their condition as a supplement to understanding the performance measures, and (3) use public reporting to foster process of care and outcome improvement initiatives. An overview is provided of the first 22 months of a transparency initiative at Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center (DHMC). LAUNCHING THE TRANSPARENCY INITIATIVE: An interdisciplinary operations group works with the various clinical programs--both providers and patients--to identify what quality and cost measures are most desired by patients and what measures are the focus of the clinical program's internal measurement and reporting processes. The measures are presented on the DHMC Web site, with access to additional resources, such as clinical decision aids. DISCUSSION: A variety of factors are important to the transparency initiative--senior leaders' perceptions, risk management issues, resources required for the design and maintenance of the initiative, and developing both methodological protocols and technical systems.     

Evidence-based management reconsidered

Reports of medical mistakes have splashed across newspapers and magazines in the United States. At the same time, instances of overuse, underuse, and misuse of management tactics and strategies receive far less attention. The sense of urgency associated with improving the quality of medical care does not exist with respect to improving the quality of management decision making. A more evidence-based approach would improve the competence of the decision-makers and their motivation to use more scientific methods when making a decision. The authors of this article consider a study of 68 U.S. health services managers that found a low level of evidence-based management behaviors. From the findings, four strategies are suggested to increase health systems managers' use of research evidence to improve decision making: focusing evidence-based decision making on strategically important issues, developing committees and other structures to diffuse management research throughout the organization, building a management culture that values research, and training managers in the competencies required to apply research evidence to health services management decisions. To aid the manager in understanding and applying an evidenced-based approach to decision making, the article provides practical tools, techniques, and resources for immediate use.     

Supporting and resourcing treatment decision‐making: some policy considerations

This paper considers some of the policy implications of issues raised during a conference about treatment decision‐making in the clinical encounter held in Hamilton, Ontario in May 1999. Policies promoting patient participation in treatment decision‐making need to be flexible enough to ensure that they are appropriate across the range of contexts in which health care decisions are made and acceptable to people with diverse preferences and abilities. They should also be formulated in consideration of other health policies and of available resources. Policies of informing people and involving them in decisions about their care are unlikely to be simple to implement. Various strategies might be needed to support them. These include the development of appropriate skills among health professionals and in the general population, the use of interventions to encourage people to play more active roles in decisions about their health care, the provision of decision aids for people facing specific decisions and the provision and accreditation of more general information resources and services. If information and other facilitators of patient participation in decision‐making are seen as integral to good quality health care, then funding should be made available for them. This will, however, have opportunity costs. Policy makers’ decisions about how much health care funding should be invested in which strategies should be underpinned by good research evidence about the effects that different types of intervention have on a range of outcomes for individuals, health care systems and populations. The knowledge on which current policies are based is limited. The development of future policies will be enhanced if policy makers invest in critical conceptual thinking, reflective practice, imaginative development work and good quality evaluative research.     

Considering quality: engaging consumers to make better health care decisions

On May 19, 2005, Grantmakers In Health (GIH) convened nearly 50 grantmakers and leaders in the field of health care quality to discuss the challenges inherent in developing quality information, as well as how consumers use such information. This Issue Brief examines the potential of consumers to use information to select high-quality health services and to become drivers of quality improvement at the systems level. There are three broadly used mechanisms for connecting consumers to information: report cards on health plans and providers, decision support aides, and the Internet. Health foundations can play an important role in developing and disseminating quality information for consumers. They can support the development of quality indicators; assess the effectiveness of information technology, including the Internet; and fund advocacy efforts to ensure consumers have the information needed to make appropriate health care choices.     

Decision analytic modeling in health care decision making. Oversimplifying a complex world?

The need to choose among alternatives instead of allowing the market to make choices has led health care professionals to rely on scientific information as an aid in decision making. Mathematical modeling is one of the increasingly common tools used over the past three decades to produce new information. But we have used almost exclusively noncomplex models to help analyze complex systems problems. The need to integrate the complexity of the interactions of clinical, quality of life, and economic attributes into such models can no longer be ignored. The opportunity is available to use existing complex systems modeling techniques for health care questions to improve the quality of study outputs, which can, in turn, help produce more rational decisions.     

Improving the quality of decision-making in health care management: a project report from the Nevada/Bohemia health management education partnership.

Health care is a data-sensitive and data-rich industry. Designers of health administration curricula recognize that future health care providers and managers must be trained to use available analytical and database information technology (IT) to transform these data into information helpful to the decision-maker. However, as the data available to administrators and clinicians proliferates, additional skills are needed to select data that is pertinent and useful. This paper presents the results of the collaboration of partners from Bohemia and University of Nevada and focuses on three areas: threats to the effective use of data to support health care decision-making;. health care decision support research and training strategies; future cross-disciplinary collaboration in health care decision support. Advanced IT methods have the potential to assist clinical and managerial decision-making. If further discussion is stimulated about the introduction of advanced IT methods into the health care management curriculum and research agenda, this paper will achieve its goal.