Changing periodontal concepts: treatment considerations

Many clinical trials conducted during the last decade have clarified controversial issues and resulted in changed periodontal paradigms. These modified concepts have therapeutic implications. Some salient altered periodontal concepts include the following: The mere presence of pathogens will not initiate periodontal diseases. Most subgingival bacteria reside in biofilms. Periodontal diseases are infections. Periodontal pathogens can be transferred between family members. The host response can be protective and destructive. Gingivitis does not usually proceed to periodontitis. Risk factors in conjunction with bacteria and the host response can affect the severity of disease, patterns of destruction, and the response to therapy. Many medical conditions (eg, diabetes, smoking, and HIV infection) may predispose patients to periodontitis. Associations between periodontitis and a number of systemic ailments (eg, diabetes, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and cardiovascular disease) have been detected and are being investigated to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. Diagnostic and therapeutic implications of these altered paradigms are addressed throughout the article.     

Periodontal diseases in the child and adolescent

BACKGROUND: Periodontal diseases are among the most frequent diseases affecting children and adolescents. These include gingivitis, localized or generalized aggressive periodontitis (a.k.a., early onset periodontitis which includes generalized or localized prepubertal periodontitis and juvenile periodontitis) and periodontal diseases associated with systemic disorders. The best approach to managing periodontal diseases is prevention, followed by early detection and treatment. METHODS: This paper reviews the current literature concerning the most common periodontal diseases affecting children: chronic gingivitis (or dental plaque-induced gingival diseases) and early onset periodontitis (or aggressive periodontitis), including prepubertal and juvenile periodontitis. In addition, systemic diseases that affect the periodontium and oral lesions commonly found in young children are addressed. The prevalence, diagnostic characteristics, microbiology, host-related factors, and therapeutic management of each of these disease entities are thoroughly discussed.     

内质网应激在牙周炎影响全身疾病过程 中的作用

牙周炎是发生在牙周组织的慢性感染性疾病,其发病机制及对全身系统疾病的影响一直是学术界关注的热点问题。许多学者认为,牙周炎不仅是一种常见的口腔疾病,更是全身疾病的潜在危险因素之一,但是目前关于牙周炎诱发全身系统疾病的具体机制尚不明确,可能与牙周致病菌、炎症因子及内质网应激等有关。近年来的研究发现,内质网应激是介导细胞凋亡的重要通路之一,并且与全身疾病密切相关。有研究显示,内质网应激在牙周炎诱导全身疾病过程中存在调控作用,但是目前关于内质网应激在牙周炎影响全身疾病过程中的作用研究较少,需要进一步探索。本文就内质网应激在牙周炎影响全身系统疾病中的研究进展进行综述,旨在探究牙周炎和全身系统疾病的内在联系,以期为牙周炎与其相关全身系统疾病的防治提供新的思路。     

Periodontal manifestations of systemic disease

Periodontitis is a chronic bacterial infection of the supporting structures of the teeth. The host response to infection is an important factor in determining the extent and severity of periodontal disease. Systemic factors modify periodontitis principally through their effects on the normal immune and inflammatory mechanisms. Several conditions may give rise to an increased prevalence, incidence or severity of gingivitis and periodontitis. The effects of a significant number of systemic diseases upon periodontitis are unclear and often it is difficult to causally link such diseases to periodontitis. In many cases the literature is insufficient to make definite statements on links between certain systemic factors and periodontitis and for several conditions only case reports exist whereas in other areas an extensive literature is present. A reduction in number or function of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) can result in an increased rate and severity of periodontal destruction. Medications such as phenytoin, nifedipine, and cyclosporin predispose to gingival overgrowth in response to plaque and changes in hormone levels may increase severity of plaque-induced gingival inflammation. Immuno-suppressive drug therapy and any disease resulting in suppression of the normal inflammatory and immune mechanisms (such as HIV infection) may predispose the individual to periodontal destruction. There is convincing evidence that smoking has a detrimental effect on periodontal health. The histiocytoses diseases may present as necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis and numerous genetic polymorphisms relevant to inflammatory and immune processes are being evaluated as modifying factors in periodontal disease. Periodontitis severity and prevalence are increased in diabetics and worse in poorly controlled diabetics. Periodontitis may exacerbate diabetes by decreasing glycaemic control. This indicates a degree of synergism between the two diseases. The relative risk of cardiovascular disease is doubled in subjects with periodontal disease. Periodontal and cardiovascular disease share many common risk and socio-economic factors, particularly smoking, which is a powerful risk factor for both diseases. The actual underlying aetiology of both diseases is complex as are the potential mechanisms whereby the diseases may be causally linked. It is thought that the chronic inflammatory and microbial burden in periodontal disease may predispose to cardiovascular disease in ways proposed for other infections such as with Chlamydia pneumoniae. To move from the current association status of both diseases to causality requires much additional evidence. Determining the role a systemic disease plays in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease is very difficult as several obstacles affect the design of the necessary studies. Control groups need to be carefully matched in respect of age, gender, oral hygiene and socio-economic status. Many studies, particularly before the aetiological importance of dental plaque was recognised, failed to include such controls. Longitudinal studies spanning several years are preferable in individuals both with and without systemic disease, due to the time period in which periodontitis will develop.     

Acute periodontal lesions

This review provides updates on acute conditions affecting the periodontal tissues, including abscesses in the periodontium, necrotizing periodontal diseases and other acute conditions that cause gingival lesions with acute presentation, such as infectious processes not associated with oral bacterial biofilms, mucocutaneous disorders and traumatic and allergic lesions. A periodontal abscess is clinically important because it is a relatively frequent dental emergency, it can compromise the periodontal prognosis of the affected tooth and bacteria within the abscess can spread and cause infections in other body sites. Different types of abscesses have been identified, mainly classified by their etiology, and there are clear differences between those affecting a pre‐existing periodontal pocket and those affecting healthy sites. Therapy for this acute condition consists of drainage and tissue debridement, while an evaluation of the need for systemic antimicrobial therapy will be made for each case, based on local and systemic factors. The definitive treatment of the pre‐existing condition should be accomplished after the acute phase is controlled. Necrotizing periodontal diseases present three typical clinical features: papilla necrosis, gingival bleeding and pain. Although the prevalence of these diseases is not high, their importance is clear because they represent the most severe conditions associated with the dental biofilm, with very rapid tissue destruction. In addition to bacteria, the etiology of necrotizing periodontal disease includes numerous factors that alter the host response and predispose to these diseases, namely HIV infection, malnutrition, stress or tobacco smoking. The treatment consists of superficial debridement, careful mechanical oral hygiene, rinsing with chlorhexidine and daily re‐evaluation. Systemic antimicrobials may be used adjunctively in severe cases or in nonresponding conditions, being the first option metronidazole. Once the acute disease is under control, definitive treatment should be provided, including appropriate therapy for the pre‐existing gingivitis or periodontitis. Among other acute conditions affecting the periodontal tissues, but not caused by the microorganisms present in oral biofilms, infectious diseases, mucocutaneous diseases and traumatic or allergic lesions can be listed. In most cases, the gingival involvement is not severe; however, these conditions are common and may prompt an emergency dental visit. These conditions may have the appearance of an erythematous lesion, which is sometimes erosive. Erosive lesions may be the direct result of trauma or a consequence of the breaking of vesicles and bullae. A proper differential diagnosis is important for adequate management of the case.     

慢性牙周炎和慢性肾病相关关系的 研究进展

慢性牙周炎不仅可以导致牙周支持组织的破坏和丧失,还与多种全身系统性疾病如高血压、糖尿病等有关.慢性肾病是一种破坏肾功能的威胁人类健康的常见的全身性疾病.近年来大量研究显示,慢性牙周炎与慢性肾病可能具有相关关系,通过治疗牙周炎有可能改善肾功能.本文就慢性牙周炎与慢性肾病相关性的流行病学调查研究、牙周治疗对慢性肾病的影响以...     

Antibiotics in the treatment of periodontitis

The emerging worldwide problem of bacterial resistance has resulted from overuse and misuse of systemic antibiotics. It is appropriate therefore to review periodontal treatment strategies to determine whether systemic antibiotics have a role to play in the management of periodontitis. For the great majority of patients presenting with periodontal conditions, systemic antibiotics are not indicated. Instead, treatment should focus on mechanical disruption of plaque biofilms, plaque control and risk factor modification. Systemic antibiotics may be indicated in severe spreading infections, some aggressive forms of periodontitis, and necrotizing periodontal conditions. These conditions present infrequently in general practice, most will require referral to a periodontal specialist and the decision to use systemic antimicrobials as part of periodontal management is more appropriately taken within a specialist centre. Systemic antibiotics are not indicated in the vast majority of periodontal conditions encountered in general dental practice.     

The role of systemic antibiotics in periodontal therapy

The Specific Plaque Hypothesis (SPH) has resulted in a renewed interest in the use of systemic antibiotics in the treatment of periodontal disease. Current data indicate that most cases of periodontitis can be treated satisfactorily with scaling and root planing alone. There are some cases of periodontitis however which remain refractory to mechanical debridement or which recur shortly after treatment. The data indicate that the use of antibiotics along with scaling and root planing during the treatment of these cases of periodontitis will result in significant improvement in the periodontal health of these patients. Antibiotics may also be indicated in patients with systemic diseases which may adversely affect the periodontium.     

Epidemiology and risk factors of periodontal diseases

Periodontal diseases are chronic inflammatory disorders encompassing destructive and nondestructive diseases of the periodontal supporting tissues of teeth. Gingivitis is a nondestructive disease ubiquitous in populations of children and adults globally. Aggressive periodontitis is characterized by severe and rapid loss of periodontal attachment often commencing at or after the circumpubertal age and is more prevalent among Latin Americans and subjects of African descent, and least common among Caucasians.Chronic periodontitis is a common disease and may occur in most age groups, but is most prevalent among adults and seniors world-wide. Approximately 48% of United States adults have chronic periodontitis, and similar or higher rates have been reported in other populations. Moderate and advanced periodontitis is more prevalent among the older age groups, and rates of 70% or more have been reported in certain populations. Chronic and aggressive periodontitis are multifactorial diseases caused primarily by dental plaque microorganisms, and with important modifying effects from other local and systemic factors. The study of the significance of demographic, environmental, and biologic variables is important for risk assessment and the control of periodontal diseases.     

Obesity, inflammation, and periodontal disease

The prevalence of obesity has increased substantially over the past decades in most industrialized countries. Obesity is a systemic disease that predisposes to a variety of co-morbidities and complications that affect overall health. Cross-sectional studies suggest that obesity is also associated with oral diseases, particularly periodontal disease, and prospective studies suggest that periodontitis may be related to cardiovascular disease. The possible causal relationship between obesity and periodontitis and potential underlying biological mechanisms remain to be established; however, the adipose tissue actively secretes a variety of cytokines and hormones that are involved in inflammatory processes, pointing toward similar pathways involved in the pathophysiology of obesity, periodontitis, and related inflammatory diseases. We provide an overview of the definition and assessment of obesity and of related chronic diseases and complications that may be important in the periodontist's office. Studies that have examined the association between obesity and periodontitis are reviewed, and adipose-tissue-derived hormones and cytokines that are involved in inflammatory processes and their relationship to periodontitis are discussed. Our aim is to raise the periodontist's awareness when treating obese individuals.     

Aggressive forms of periodontitis secondary to systemic disorders

A number of systemic disorders increase a patient’s susceptibility to destructive periodontitis and have impacts on periodontal disease progression and severity. The underlying factors are usually genetic and are mainly related to alterations in the immune response and in certain endocrine functions, leading to various syndromes in which periodontitis and/or early tooth loss are secondary manifestations. Neutrophils are important immune defense cells that play a significant role in controlling the spread of microbial plaque infections in the dentogingival region. This review focuses on a selected group of systemic disorders that are associated with alterations in either neutrophil counts (quantitative disorders) or function (qualitative disorders), and defects in the mineralization of bone and dental tissues. In most of these diseases controlling the periodontal disease progression is very challenging. Proper diagnosis is a prerequisite for proper management of the periodontal problem. Future advances in research, including gene targeting and the resolution of enzyme deficiencies, may bring about remedies of the underlying systemic disorders and may significantly improve the outcome of periodontal treatment in these patients.     

Periodontitis modified by systemic factors

Microbial dental plaque is the initiator of periodontal disease but whether it affects a particular subject, what form the disease takes, and how it progresses, are all dependent on the host defenses to this challenge. Systemic factors modify all forms periodontitis principally through their effects on the normal immune and inflammatory defenses. Some good examples of this effect exist such as when there is a reduction in number or function of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) that may result in an increased rate and severity of periodontal destruction. Many other systemic factors are much less clear cut and are difficult to causally link to periodontitis. In many cases the literature is insufficient to make definite statements on links between systemic factors and periodontitis. It is also at times difficult to be precise regarding the causative agent in systemic exposures such as smoking and even prescribed drug therapy. The possible role of systemic diseases and systemic exposures in initiating or modifying the progress of periodontal disease is clearly a complex issue. It is however generally agreed that several conditions may give rise to an increased prevalence, incidence, or severity of gingivitis and periodontitis. The categorization of the systemic modifying factors causing periodontitis and the evidence to support the role of these factors are the focus of this review. An attempt has been made to consider the conditions under broad headings, but it will be clear that many conditions fall within more than one category and that for several conditions only case reports exist whereas in other areas an extensive literature is present.     

Negative effects of chronic inflammatory periodontal disease on diabetes mellitus

Periodontal disease is the result of a complex interplay of bacterial infection and host responses, and is often modified by various systemic diseases such as diabetes mellitus. Such diseases are capable of affecting the periodontium and/or the treatment of periodontal disease. However, recent research has changed our concept of how periodontal disease should be treated. Here we present several concerns directed towards the periodontal therapy of patients with diabetes mellitus based on our studies. When treating periodontitis patients who have diabetes mellitus it is important to consider the type of diabetes. Patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus can be further classified according to the degree of insulin resistance, since recent epidemiological studies have suggested that successful anti-microbial therapy might result in improved insulin resistance in highly insulin resistant patients. Because the major contributing factor for insulin resistance is currently considered to be the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and because periodontal surgery may cause transient bacteremia which may up-regulate the serum TNF-alpha level, which in turn suppresses insulin action, patients should be strictly treated non-surgically and their serum TNF-alpha levels should be periodically monitored. On the other hand, diabetic patients positive for serum anti-glutamate decarboxylase auto-antibody should be examined for the source of this antibody, since 1) gingival and periodontal ligament fibroblasts were found to express glutamate decarboxylase, and 2) some otherwise healthy periodontitis patients develop anti-glutamate decarboxylase antibody. Thus, chronic periodontitis may influence the level of this antibody which is widely used as a predictive marker for slowly progressive insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Not only is periodontal disease thereby affected by systemic diseases, but carefully managed periodontal therapy may also have a positive effect on the general health of patients with systemic diseases.     

Diagnosis of periodontal manifestations of systemic diseases

Many systemic diseases can mimic periodontitis or gingivitis. These include many immunologic, infectious, neoplastic and metabolic disorders. In comparison with periodontitis and gingivitis, these disorders are considerably less common. However, since their diagnosis and management differ, a high index of suspicion is frequently needed when confronted a patient presenting with gingival or periodontal disease. This chapter has reviewed a number of systemic conditions that may mimic clinically both gingivitis and chronic periodontitis and has focused on the features that may assist the clinician in making the diagnosis and providing specific therapies.     

Prevalence of systemic diseases in Brisbane general and periodontal practice patients

BACKGROUND: Periodontitis has been associated with a number of systemic diseases such as atherosclerosis, coronary heart diseases, and respiratory diseases. This study aimed to determine whether there is a significant difference in the prevalence of systemic diseases (a) in patients referred for periodontal care compared to the general practice population, (b) in patients attending a public hospital and private practices, (c) in patients attending public and private periodontal practices, and (d) among patients with periodontitis of varying severity. METHODS: Charts of 1000 adult patients were selected from four clinics (University of Queensland (UQ) School of Dentistry Admissions Clinic, UQ School of Dentistry Periodontics Clinic, Private Periodontal Practice, and Private General Dental Practice). The prevalence of medical conditions was evaluated using validated self-reported health questionnaires. The periodontal condition was assessed from the most recent relevant radiographs in the files. RESULTS: Periodontal patients had a higher prevalence of systemic diseases compared to the general practice population. Public patients had a greater prevalence of systemic diseases compared to patients in private practice for both general practice and periodontal patients. In patients with advanced periodontitis, bronchitis, hepatitis and rheumatoid arthritis were most prevalent. Patients with periodontitis also took more medications and were more likely to suffer from multiple conditions compared to the general dental population. CONCLUSIONS: Patients attending public dental facilities have an increased prevalence of systemic disease compared to those attending private practices. Furthermore periodontal patients have a greater prevalence of diseases compared to general practice patients. Patients with moderate or advanced periodontitis show an increase in the prevalence of some systemic diseases previously reported to be risk factors for periodontal disease.     

Position paper: periodontal diseases of children and adolescents

Children and adolescents are subject to several periodontal diseases. Although there is a much lower prevalence of destructive periodontal diseases in children than in adults, children can develop severe forms of periodontitis. In some cases, this destructive disease is a manifestation of a known underlying systemic disease. In other young patients, the underlying cause for increased susceptibility and early onset of disease is unknown. These diseases are often familial, suggesting a genetic predisposition for aggressive disease. Current modalities for managing periodontal diseases of children and adolescents may include antibiotic therapy in combination with non-surgical and/or surgical therapy. Since early diagnosis ensures the greatest chance for successful treatment, it is important that children receive a periodontal examination as part of their routine dental visits.     

肥胖和牙周炎相关性的研究进展

肥胖是一种患病率越来越高的系统性疾病,它也是2型糖尿病、冠心病等慢性疾病的危险因素。近来许多研究表明,肥胖与牙周病尤其是牙周炎也具有相关性。本文就肥胖与牙周炎的相关性和它们之间联系的可能机制作一综述。     

Dental geriatrics and periodontitis

The present literature review is focused on two main areas: (i) periodontal conditions in older individuals; and (ii) the scientific data available on periodontal treatment outcomes in individuals ≥ 75 years of age. The population of older people is increasing but the data on periodontal therapies and their efficacy in this population are limited and need to be carefully reviewed. Although life expectancy has increased, this does not mean that older people are medically healthy. Several chronic systemic diseases are associated with periodontitis, and the prevalence of most chronic diseases increases with age. Furthermore, older people are challenged by impaired immunity (immune senescence) with a decline in the numbers of naïve T‐cells in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. The most frequent significant correlates with successful ageing include not smoking and the absence of disability, arthritis and diabetes mellitus. Periodontal diseases in older individuals may have specific features that are not consistent with periodontal diseases. In this respect, data suggest that gingival lesions in older individuals develop differently from gingival lesions in younger adults. The progression of periodontitis may be slower in older individuals, and older individuals with periodontitis may benefit from more conservative treatment approaches. Diagnostic criteria used for the assessment and diagnosis of periodontitis in younger adults may not be fully applicable in older individuals. In summary, declining health, perception of treatment needs, dietary changes, comorbidity with other diseases and immune senescence are challenging factors to clinicians and researchers, in terms of therapies and in understanding periodontitis etiology in older individuals.     

Cardiovascular disease and periodontitis: an update on the associations and risk

Background: Associations between periodontitis and cardiovascular diseases have been recognized.
Material and Methods: New literature since the last European Workshop on Periodontology has been reviewed.
Results: The lack of reliable epidemiological data on disease prevalence makes an assessment of the associations and risks between periodontitis and cardiovascular diseases difficult. Two recent meta-analysis reports have identified associations between periodontitis and cardiovascular diseases (odds ratios: 1.1–2.2). Different surrogate markers for both disease entities, including serum biomarkers, have been investigated. Brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation, and carotid intima media thickness have in some studies been linked to periodontitis. Studies are needed to confirm early results of improvements of such surrogate markers following periodontal therapy. While intensive periodontal therapy may enhance inflammatory responses and impair vascular functions, studies are needed to assess the outcome of periodontal therapies in subjects with confirmed cardiovascular conditions. Tooth eradication may also reduce the systemic inflammatory burden of individuals with severe periodontitis. The role of confounders remain unclear.
Conclusions: Periodontitis may contribute to cardiovascular disease and stroke in susceptible subjects. Properly powered longitudinal case–control and intervention trials are needed to identify how periodontitis and periodontal interventions may have an impact on cardiovascular diseases.     

Aggressive and acute periodontal diseases

Inflammatory periodontal diseases are highly prevalent, although most of these diseases develop and progress slowly, often unnoticed by the affected individual. However, a subgroup of these diseases include aggressive and acute forms that have a relatively low prevalence but show a rapid‐course, high rate of progression leading to severe destruction of the periodontal tissues, or cause systemic symptoms that often require urgent attention from healthcare providers. Aggressive periodontitis is an early‐onset, destructive disease that shows a high rate of periodontal progression and distinctive clinical features. A contemporary case definition of this disease is presented. Population studies show that the disease is more prevalent in certain geographic regions and ethnic groups. Aggressive periodontitis is an infectious disease, and recent data show that in affected subjects the subgingival microbiota is composed of a mixed microbial infection, with a wide heterogeneity in the types and proportions of microorganisms recovered. Furthermore, there are significant differences in the microbiota of the disease among different geographic regions and ethnicities. There is also evidence that the Aggregatibacter actinomycetemycomitans‐JP2 clone may play an important role in the development of the disease in certain populations. The host response plays an important role in the susceptibility to aggressive periodontitis, where the immune response may be complex and involve multiple mechanisms. Also, genetic factors seem to play an important role in the pathogenesis of this disease, but the mechanisms of increased susceptibility are complex and not yet fully understood. The available data suggest that aggressive periodontitis is caused by mutations either in a few major genes or in multiple small‐effect genes, and there is also evidence of gene–gene and gene–environment interaction effects. Diagnostic methods for this disease, based on a specific microbiologic, immunologic or genetic profile, currently do not exist. Genetic markers have the potential to be implemented as screening tools to identify subjects at risk. This approach may significantly enhance treatment outcome through the early detection and treatment of affected subjects, as well as using future approaches based on gene therapy. At present, the treatment of this disease is directed toward elimination of the subgingival bacterial load and other local risk factors. Adjunctive use of appropriate systemic antibiotics is recommended and may contribute to a longer suppression of the microbial infection. Other aggressive forms of periodontal diseases occur in patients who are affected with certain systemic diseases, including the leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndrome, Papillon–Lefèvre syndrome, Chediak–Higashi syndrome and Down syndrome. Management of the periodontal component of these diseases is very challenging. Acute gingival and periodontal lesions include a group of disorders that range from nondestructive to destructive forms, and these lesions are usually associated with pain and are a common reason for emergency dental consultations. Some of these lesions may cause a rapid and severe destruction of the periodontal tissues and loss of teeth. Oral infections, particularly acute infections, can spread to extra‐oral sites and cause serious medical complications, and even death. Hence, prompt diagnosis and treatment are paramount.