Tomoscintigraphy of the lumbar spine: Prospects and clinical application

Summary In an in vivo prospective study, we examined the lumbar spine of 18 patients presenting with a first episode of acute low-back pain with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Scintigraphic activity at L2 was considered 100%, and the other levels were quantified in relation to L2. MRI scans were rated for disc signal intensity on T2-weighted images. The results show that an abnormal intervertebral MRI signal corresponds with an abnormal image on tomoscintigraphy. On tomoscintographic profiles, the disappearance of the discal dip corresponds well with degeneration on MRI. Furthermore, a positive MRI at one level appears to influence other levels at which a significantly higher scintigraphic activity was observed. Of patients with acute LBP 50% had a normal disc SPECT; it is concluded that in these cases a non-discal origin for the pain must be sought.Read at the annual meeting of the International Society for the Study of the Lumbar Spine, Marseilles, 1993     

椎间盘源性下腰痛的发病机制

目的探讨椎间盘源性下腰痛的发病机制。方法收集腰椎后路切除的17例椎间盘源性下腰痛患者的19个经腰椎间盘造影术证实的疼痛腰椎间盘;同时收集12个在MRI T2加权像上信号强度明显减弱、无腰痛症状的生理老化椎间盘和10个正常对照椎间盘,行组织学检查和P物质、神经丝蛋白和血管活性肠肽的免疫组织化学染色检查。结果椎间盘源性下腰痛患者的疼痛椎间盘在组织学上的显著特征表现为,一条从髓核至纤维环外层的血管化肉芽组织条带区,其间伴有1个或多个裂隙;肉芽组织条带区与椎间盘造影术后CT上显示的纤维环裂隙一致,肉芽组织之外的纤维环结构基本正常。生理老化椎间盘和正常对照椎间盘表现为与年龄相关的改变。免疫组织化学染色显示,疼痛椎间盘中P物质、神经丝蛋白和血管活性肠肽3种神经肽阳性神经纤维分布数量和比例,较正常对照椎间盘和生理老化椎间盘明显增多;神经纤维主要沿伴有裂隙的肉芽组织条带区分布;疼痛椎间盘髓核中可见P物质和神经丝蛋白的阳性神经纤维分布。结论椎间盘后方神经分布广泛的肉芽组织条带区是椎间盘造影术疼痛和椎间盘源性下腰痛的起源部位。肉芽组织条带可能起源于椎间盘的创伤修复过程。生理老化椎间盘和疼痛椎间盘的差异是后者形成组织学上的肉芽组织条带区。     

Neuroanatomic basis for discogenic pain

AIMS: The aim of this study is to give a short overview about the innervation of the intervertebral disc and the nerve connections between the somatosensible and autonomous nervous systems in the paravertebral region. METHODS: A short review of the clinical and experimental literature including gross-anatomical, histochemical and immunohistochemical studies as well as functional studies after application of tracer substances has been made. We also present our own experimental immunohistochemical and molecular biological investigations on paravertebral muscle biopsies of a patient with post-discotomy syndrome. RESULTS: The annulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc is innervated by myelinated nerve fibres. Neuronal markers for pain-leading fibres were found to be positive in the dorsal region of the annulus, and especially in the posterior longitudinal ligament. Nerve ingrowth into the diseased intervertebral disc was found in chronic back pain. The main innervation of the intervertebral disc is formed by the sinuvertebral nerves. The sinuvertebral nerves are recurrent branches of the ventral rami that re-enter the intervertebral foramina to be distributed within the vertebral canal. They are mixed polysegmental nerves and nerve plexuses, each being formed by a somatic root from a ventral ramus and an autonomic root from a grey ramus communicans. The number of nerve bundles was reduced by resection of sympathetic trunks. The expression of neuronal markers in the sarcolemma of the paravertebral muscles is reduced after discotomy. CONCLUSIONS: The neuroanatomical basis of discogenic pain can be summarised as follows: 1. The intervertebral disc receives an extensive innervation, especially the annulus fibrosus. 2. Nerve extension was found into the nucleus pulposus of the degenerated disc. 3. The sinuvertebral nerve plexuses facilitate a polysegmental signal and pain spreading. 4. The innervation of the intervertebral disc is very high connected with the paravertebral muscles. 5. A local denervation of the paravertebral muscles was found in post-discotomy syndrome.     

The pathogenesis and clinical significance of a high-intensity zone (HIZ) of lumbar intervertebral disc on MR imaging in the patient with discogenic low back pain

Recently, the presence of a high-intensity zone (HIZ) within the posterior annulus seen on T2-weighted MRI has aroused great interest and even controversy among many investigators, particularly on whether the HIZ was closely associated with a concordant pain response on awake discography. The study attempted to interpret the correlation between the presence of the HIZ on MRI and awake discography, as well as its characteristic pathology. Fifty two patients with low back pain without disc herniation underwent MRI and discography successively. Each disc with HIZ was correlated for an association between the presence of a HIZ and the grading of annular disruption and a concordant pain response. Eleven specimens of lumbar intervertebral discs which contain HIZ in the posterior annulus from 11 patients with discogenic low back pain were harvested for histologic examination to interpret the histologic basis of a nociceptive response during posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF). The study found that in all of 142 discograms in 52 patients, 17 presented HIZ. All 17 discs with HIZ showed painful reproduction and abnormal morphology with annular tears extending either well into or through the outer third of the annulus fibrosus. The consecutive sagittal slices through the HIZ lesion showed that a notable histologic feature of the formation of vascularized granulation tissue in the outer region of the annulus fibrosus. The current study suggests that the HIZ of the lumbar disc on MRI in the patient with low back pain could be considered as a reliable marker of painful outer anular disruption.     

Discography and discogenic pain

Disc abnormalities, either directly or indirectly, are responsible for almost half the cases of back pain. A degenerated intervertebral disc without any impingement on adjacent nerve roots was suspected as a source of low-back pain in the 1920s. Discography is now considered a diagnostic procedure designed to determine whether a disc is intrinsically painful. The procedure involves inserting a needle into the nucleus pulposus and distending the disc with an injection of saline or contrast media. Postprocedure computed tomography can be used to highlight the features of internal disc disruption, which is the most commonly known cause of discogenic pain. The clinical history usually includes a deep, dull ache in the low back at the midline, with minimal radiation beyond the gluteal area and rarely to the knees and legs, no particular alleviating position, and pain that may worsen with axial loading. There is no accompanying sensory or motor loss. Provocative discography is widely used to identify the symptomatic intervertebral discs. Internal intervertebral disc derangement and positive provocation discography could be treated with surgical fusion or intradiscal electrothermal therapy. Application of heat to the intervertebral disc structure leads to thermal ablation of the nociceptors. Heat leads to contraction and shrinkage of collagen of the intervertebral disc and a decrease of the volume of the nucleus pulposus, resulting in a debulking of the intervertebral disc. Although intradiscal electrothermal therapy is a very promising procedure to treat discogenic pain, studies on its long-term effects, outcome measures, and cost-effectiveness are needed to validate the efficacy of this technique. Copyright © 2000 by W.B. Saunders Company     

椎间盘封闭术对纤维环破裂型椎间盘源性腰痛的诊治价值

 目的 探讨椎间盘封闭术对纤维环破裂型椎间盘源性腰痛的诊治价值。方法 临床高度怀疑椎间盘源性腰痛行椎间盘造影及单个椎间盘封闭术且有完整随访资料的患者120例,男72例,女48例;年龄25～60岁,平均48岁。根据造影术中纤维环破裂Dallas分级将患者分为0级组7例、1级组36例、2级组48例、3级组29例。采用疼痛视觉模拟评分(visual analogue scale,VAS)及罗兰莫里斯功能评分表(Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire,RMDQ)对术前及术后2周、2个月、6个月、12个月及24个月的疗效进行评估。结果 对高度怀疑的“责任椎间盘”进行封闭阻滞后患者腰痛症状明显改善,术后疼痛VAS和RMDQ评分与术前比较差异有统计学意义;Dallas 3级组中期疗效优于Dallas 1级组及2级组,差异有统计学意义;重度纤维环破裂患者(Dallas分级3级)术后各时间点腰痛症状复发率均低于其他各组患者。结论 椎间盘封闭术能有效缓解椎间盘源性腰痛的症状,并有一定的诊断价值,可作为造影术不能复制疼痛病例的补充诊断依据;纤维环破裂型椎间盘源性腰痛患者,特别是重度纤维环破裂患者,接受椎间盘局部封闭术后缓解疼痛的效果确切。     

亚甲兰注射治疗椎间盘源性腰痛的临床观察

目的选择一组符合行腰椎融合手术标准的慢性失能性椎间盘源性腰痛患者,给予腰椎椎间盘内注射亚甲蓝,观察其临床效果。方法回顾性分析2010年8月～2011年12月行亚甲蓝椎间盘内注射治疗的90例椎间盘源性腰痛病例。用疼痛视觉模拟量表(visual analog scale,VAS)评分和Oswestry功能障碍指数(Oswestry disability index,ODI)评估每个患者手术前后的腰痛情况和腰椎功能,以评价亚甲蓝注射疗效。结果患者术后随访时间为3～6个月。所有患者中,83例(92.2%)腰痛症状有明显改善或完全消失,80例(88.9%)腰椎功能明显改善。手术前后的VAS评分和ODI比较,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论椎间盘内注射亚甲蓝是一种非常有效的治疗椎间盘源性腰痛的方法。     

颈椎间盘与后纵韧带上交感神经的解剖学观察及在颈椎间盘源性疼痛中作用的探讨

目的观察颈椎间盘及后纵韧带上交感神经的分布特点并探讨其在颈椎间盘源性疼痛中的作用。方法分别切取8只兔子颈椎间盘及颈椎后纵韧带，用冰冻切片-乙醛酸（SPG）法对其交感神经纤维进行特异性染色，荧光显微镜观察并辅以图像分析软件（Image-pro plus5．0）观察其分布特点。结果颈椎间盘外环有少量交感神经节后纤维，颈椎后纵韧带椎间盘区有大量密集的交感神经节后纤维，它们互相交叉成网状或排列成丛状，且有着复杂的三维空间联系。分布于后纵韧带浅层的交感神经较深层密集（P〈0．05）。结论分布于颈椎间盘外环及后纵韧带上的交感神经纤维是感受颈椎间盘紊乱、病变刺激的生理基础，可能在颈椎间盘源性疼痛发病中起着重要作用。     

腰椎间盘MRI高信号区的组织病理学特点和临床意义

目的研究椎间盘源性下腰痛患者腰椎间盘纤维环后方MRI高信号区的组织病理学特征及其临床意义。方法对52例经保守治疗无效、CT片显示无腰椎间盘突出的下腰痛患者行腰椎MR检查及腰椎间盘造影术。男39例,女13例;平均年龄38.8岁。选择纤维环后方出现高信号区的部分病例行腰椎后路椎间盘切除、椎体间融合、椎弓根螺钉内固定术,术中收集包括高信号区部位的椎间盘。对标本行矢状面连续组织学切片,光镜下观察高信号区椎间盘组织的组织病理学结构,并分析其临床意义。结果在行腰椎间盘造影的52例142个椎间盘中,17例17个椎间盘显示高信号区,且在椎间盘造影过程中全部呈现2或3级的纤维环破裂和疼痛复制反应。敏感性和特异性均为100%。高信号区与纤维环破裂程度分级呈正相关,说明纤维环破裂程度分级越高,越易出现高信号区(R=0.462,P<0.01)。共收集11例患者11个椎间盘,组织学研究发现对应高信号区的椎间盘组织表现为沿纤维环裂隙形成的不同程度的血管化肉芽组织,有成熟的瘢痕化胶原组织。结论症状性下腰痛患者的腰椎MRI上有椎间盘高信号区,可以作为椎间盘源性下腰痛诊断的重要征象。     

Sponge-induced granuloma ("gauzoma") as a complication of posterior lumbar surgery

A 45-year-old woman presented with complaints of low back pain and sciatica on the left persisting for 2 years. She had undergone left hemilaminectomy and discectomy for L4-5 intervertebral disc herniation at another medical center. Spinal computed tomography and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging revealed a mass lesion in the posterior paravertebral region. The mass was hypointense with ring enhancement on the T(1)-weighted images and hyperintense on the T(2)-weighted images. Surgery found a retained sponge within the paraspinal mass cavity which was removed totally. Foreign-body granuloma ("gauzoma") induced by forgotten sponge material is not an unusual complication of posterior lumbar surgery and should be considered as a potential cause in cases of surgical wound infections. MR imaging is essential to achieve the correct differential diagnosis.     

Magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of disc degeneration: correlation with discography

One hundred and one disc levels in 36 patients with low-back pain were studied with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (T2-weighted) sagittal images and conventional roentgenographic discography to detect early disc degeneration. Thirty-nine discs also were evaluated after discography with roentgenographic CT MRI findings were compared with discography results. MRI was 99% accurate in predicting normality or abnormality as determined by discography. Changes in disc signal on MRI accurately reflected the presence or absence of degenerative changes seen on discography in patients with low-back pain. Clinically, MRI is a useful technique for detecting early disc degeneration and for assessing the affected disc level and adjacent levels in patients with low-back pain and spondylolithesis.     

Disc deterioration in low-back syndromes. A prospective, multi-center CT/discography study

Disc deterioration and pain provocation in different low-back pain syndromes was studied using computed tomography (CT) discography. Data were prospectively collected for 300 patients (816 discs). Patients were classified by their pre-discography diagnosis of disc herniation (DH), degenerated disc (DD), lumbar syndrome (LS), lumbar radicular syndrome (LRS), or other. The CT/discograms were classified by discographic pain response, the amount of degeneration and annular disruption. Eighty-two percent of DH patients, 80% of DD, 56% of LS, and 59% of LRS patients had both positive discographic pain provocation and moderate or severe disc deterioration. The study indicates that intradiscal pathology plays a major role in nonspecific low-back pain syndromes.     

椎间盘源性腰痛人工椎间盘置换术的中期随访研究

 目的 探讨椎间盘源性腰痛人工椎间盘置换术(artificial disc replacement,ADR)的中期疗效。方法 2004年7月至2007年7月采用ADR治疗椎间盘源性腰痛21例(24个椎间盘),男9例,女12例;年龄26~67岁,平均46岁。均经椎间盘造影明确诊断。手术节段：L4-5 5例,L5S1 13例,L4-5+L5S1 3例。SB Charité Ⅲ型椎间盘假体22个,Activ L型椎间盘假体2个。集中随访时行X线、CT和MR检查,评估疼痛视觉模拟评分(visual analogue scale,VAS)及Oswestry功能障碍指数(Oswestry disability index,ODI)。结果 随访时间4~7年,平均5.1年。(1)腰腿痛较术前明显缓解,腰痛、腿痛VAS及ODI与术前比较差异均有统计学意义。(2)未出现椎间盘假体脱出、断裂、塌陷及手术节段自发性融合。1例双间隙手术者术后出现腰椎轻度侧凸,1例单间隙手术者出现相邻节段骨质增生加重。(3)手术节段椎间隙前缘高度较术前平均增加6.3 mm,后缘高度平均增加1.9 mm,节段性前凸角平均增加2.9°,椎间活动度平均为4.6°。近侧相邻节段椎间活动度平均减少2.5°。腰椎前凸角平均增加7.8°,腰椎屈伸活动范围平均增加2.4°。(4)近侧相邻节段椎间盘退变MR分级及关节突关节退变CT分级无明显变化,手术节段关节突关节退变CT分级增加。结论 椎间盘源性腰痛ADR术后5年手术节段仍保留一定的活动度,近侧相邻节段椎间盘和关节突关节退变缓慢,但手术节段关节突关节存在退变加速现象。     

Diagnosis of symptomatic disc by magnetic resonance imaging: T2-weighted and gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging

Although radial tear of the annulus fibrosus can be detected on T2-weighted and Gd-DTPA-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) images, the association between the annular tear on MR images and the symptomatic discs is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between T2-weighted, gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced MR images and pain response through discography in patients with chronic low back pain. A total of 56 lumbar discs from 23 patients with chronic low back pain (13 to 47 years old) underwent MR imaging (T2-weighted, gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced MR images) followed by provocative discography. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of T2-weighted and gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced MR images in detecting the symptomatic discs were calculated. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of T2-weighted images in detecting the symptomatic disc were 94%, 71%, 59%, and 97%, respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced images were 71%, 75%, 56%, and 86%, respectively. The high sensitivity and the high negative predictive value of T2-weighted MR imaging in detecting the symptomatic disc indicated that MR imaging can be a useful screening tool in avoiding unnecessary discography in patients with chronic low back pain.     

The pathogenesis of discogenic low back pain

Discogenic low back pain is a common cause of disability, but its pathogenesis is poorly understood. We collected 19 specimens of lumbar intervertebral discs from 17 patients with discogenic low back pain during posterior lumbar interbody fusion, 12 from physiologically ageing discs and ten from normal control discs. We investigated the histological features and assessed the immunoreactive activity of neurofilament (NF200) and neuropeptides such as substance P (SP) and vasoactive-intestinal peptide (VIP) in the nerve fibres. The distinct histological characteristic of the painful disc was the formation of a zone of vascularised granulation tissue from the nucleus pulposus to the outer part of the annulus fibrosus along the edges of the fissures. SP-, NF- and VIP-immunoreactive nerve fibres in the painful discs were more extensive than in the control discs. Growth of nerves deep into the annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus was observed mainly along the zone of granulation tissue in the painful discs. This suggests that the zone of granulation tissue with extensive innervation along the tears in the posterior part of the painful disc may be responsible for causing the pain of discography and of discogenic low back pain.     

Pathophysiology,diagnosis, and treatment of discogenic low back pain

Discogenic low back pain is a serious medical and social problem, and accounts for 26%-42% of the patients with chronic low back pain. Recent studies found that the pathologic features of discs obtained from the patients with discogenic low back pain were the formation of the zones of vascularized granulation tissue, with extensive innervation in fissures extending from the outer part of the annulus into the nucleus pulposus. Studies suggested that the degeneration of the painful disc might originate from the injury and subsequent repair of annulus fibrosus. Growth factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor β1, and connective tissue growth factor, macrophages and mast cells might play a key role in the repair of the injured annulus fibrosus and subsequent disc degeneration. Although there exist controversies about the role of discography as a diagnostic test, provocation discography still is the only available means by which to identify a painful disc. A recent study has classified discogenic low back pain into two types that were annular disruption-induced low back pain and internal endplate disruption-induced low back pain, which have been fully supported by clinical and theoretical bases. Current treatment options for discogenic back pain range from medicinal anti-inflammation strategy to invasive procedures including spine fusion and recently spinal arthroplasty. However, these treatments are limited to relieving symptoms, with no attempt to restore the disc’s structure. Recently, there has been a growing interest in developing strategies that aim to repair or regenerate the degenerated disc biologically.     

An analysis of radiating pain at lumbar discography

This study aimed to identify the morphological abnormalities of the intervertebral disc, as demonstrated by lumbar discography, that are associated with pain radiation to the hip, groin, buttock or lower limb. We carried out a retrospective review of 99 consecutive lumbar discogram reports. The association of disc degeneration, annular tears (partial or full thickness) and the level of disc injected was determined with respect to the presence and pattern of radiating pain. A total of 260 discs were injected, of which 179 were considered abnormal. Posterior annular tears were demonstrated in 84 discs, anterior annular tears in 15 discs and 45 discs had both anterior and posterior tears. A significant association was identified between isolated posterior tears and the production of concordant radiating pain (P = 0.0041). No difference was identified between partial thickness posterior tears and full thickness posterior tears associated with leak of contrast medium, with regard to radiating pain. Similarly, there was no significant association between disc level injected and the pattern of pain radiation. The results indicate that pain experienced in the buttock, hip, groin or lower limb can arise from the posterior annulus of the intervertebral disc without direct involvement of the nerve root. Received: 29 November 1997 Revised: 20 March 1998 Accepted: 6 April 1998     

Both expression of cytokines and posterior annulus fibrosus rupture are essential for pain behavior changes induced by degenerative intervertebral disc: An experimental study in rats

The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between intervertebral disc degeneration and low back pain (LBP). Rat L4/5 disc degeneration model was established by annular puncture using a 0.4 mm needle anteriorly or posteriorly. In both anterior and posterior puncture models, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histological analyses revealed marked disc degeneration 2 weeks after puncture. Cytokine expression was up‐regulated in different level in nucleus pulposus (NP) from 3 days after puncture. Pain behavioral tests indicated that the anterior disc puncture did not induce pain behavior changes, whereas the posterior disc puncture resulted in mechanical allodynia from 1 day to 21 days after injury. Besides, cytokine expression was significantly increased in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) at 1 and 2 weeks after posterior puncture, but not after the anterior puncture. These findings indicate the NP of the degenerative disc expresses different levels of inflammatory cytokines, and posterior disc puncture produced mechanical allodynia. The expression phase of cytokines in the NP was accordance with mechanical hyperalgesia in the posterior disc puncture model. Both expression of cytokines and posterior annulus fibrosus (AF) rupture in degenerative intervertebral disc are essential for pain behavior changes. © 2013 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 32:262–272, 2014.     

腰椎间盘MRI局限性高信号对下腰痛诊断的临床意义

目的 分析腰椎间盘MRI局限性高信号区的影像学表现与临床对照,以提高对该征象的临床意义。方法 回顾分析35例下腰痛患者伴有腰椎间盘MRI局限性高信号区的影像学表现特征进行分析、诊断,对照临床资料及手术病理对照。结果 腰椎间盘MRI局限性高信号区MR矢状位T2WI图像呈圆形（71.4%）,弧形（20.0%）或放射状（8.6%）,病灶表现以圆形常见。轴位像为条状或梭形,与椎间盘纤维环破裂一致;高信号出现的位置与临床症状相符合。结论 腰椎间盘MRI局限性高信号区对诊断腰椎间盘性下腰痛有一定的特异性,出现该征象可提示椎间盘纤维环撕裂,为下腰痛患者的诊治提供参考。     

Intradiscal methylene blue injection for the treatment of chronic discogenic low back pain

This article was a preliminary report of prospective clinical trial of a group of patients with chronic discogenic low back pain who met the criteria for lumbar interbody fusion surgery but were treated instead with an intradiscal injection of methylene blue (MB) for the pain relief. Twenty-four patients with chronic discogenic low back pain underwent diagnostic discography with intradiscal injection of MB. The principal criteria to judge the effectiveness included alleviation of pain, assessed by visual analog scale (VAS), and improvement in disability, as assessed with the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) for functional recovery. The mean follow-up period was 18.2 months (range 12–23 months). Of the 24 patients, 21 (87%) reported a disappearance or marked alleviation of low back pain, and experienced a definite improvement in physical function. A statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvement in the changes in the ODI and the VAS scores were obtained in the patients with chronic discogenic low back pain (P=0.0001) after the treatment. The study suggests that the injection of MB into the painful disc may be a very effective alternative for the surgical treatment of chronic discogenic low back pain.